China's Challenges and International Order Transition: Beyond "Thucydides's Trap"

Figure 3.1. China’s demographic pyramid (2019, millions). Source: United States Census Bureau International Database

Figure 3.2. GDP (current USD$b). Source: World Bank

Figure 3.3: US demographic pyramid (2019, millions). Source: United States Census Bureau International Database

Figure 3.4. GDP per capita (current USD). Source: World Bank

Figure 3.5. China’s strategic predicament. Source: Author

Figure 3.6. Military spending (current USD$b). Source: World Bank

Figure 3.7. External debt (current USD$b). Source: World Bank

Figure 3.8. Net FDI outflows (BoP, current USD$b). Source: World Bank

Figure 3.9. Current account balance (current USD$b). Source: OECD Quarterly International Trade Statistics

Figure 3.10. Allies (L) and overseas bases (R). Sources: US Department of Defense, Wikipedia

Figure 3.11. The South China Sea: Nine-dash line, EEZs, contested features. Source: Author

Figure 5.1. Variation of great power relationships—A typology. Notes: The dotted, arrowed line represents Alexander Wendt’s description on the linear change of relationship between two great powers; the curved line demonstrates dynamic variations in great power relationships.

Figure 9.1. Autonomous Tianxia and governed Tianxia. Notes: In autonomous Tianxia, control and order are negatively associated, while in governed Tianxia, they are positively associated. The equilibrium is where the prince, or the hegemonic actor in the case of international relations, exerts self-restraint beyond a level of intervening, taxing, or belittling that is maximally acceptable to the subjects (or the smaller actors in the case of IR). The subjects reciprocate with role playing that supports a level of order that is minimally acceptable to the prince or hegemonic actor.