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On the Hunt for Medieval Whales: Zooarchaeological, historical and social perspectives on cetacean exploitation in medieval northern and western Europe
Youri van den Hurk
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Medieval cetacean (whales, dolphins, and porpoises) exploitation has frequently been connected to various medieval societies, including the Basques, Norse, Normans, and Flemish. Primarily for the ninth to the twelfth centuries AD, it has been argued that the symbolic significance of cetaceans surpassed their utilitarian value and that their consumption was restricted to the social elite. The extent to which active whaling was practised remains unclear. The identification of zooarchaeological cetacean fragments to the species level is hard and as a result they are frequently merely identified as 'whale', resulting in a poor understanding of human-cetacean interaction in the past. Zooarchaeological research as part of this study has revealed that medieval cetacean exploitation was widespread and especially the harbour porpoise (Phocoena phocoena), common bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus), and the North Atlantic right whale (Eubalaena glacialis) were frequently targeted. The exploitation additionally seems to have often been restricted to the social elite.
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Cover
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Title Page
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Copyright
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Subseries
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Of Related Interest
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Contents
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List of Figures
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List of Tables
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Acknowledgements
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Abstract
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Samenvatting
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Zusammenfassung
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Resumen
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Résumé
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Introduction
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Material and Methods
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1. Cetaceans and the North Atlantic Ocean
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1.1. Origin and Evolution of Cetaceans
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1.1.1. Marine Mammals
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1.1.2. Phylogenetics
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1.1.3. Evolution of Modern Cetaceans
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1.2. The North Atlantic Ocean
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1.2.1. Arctic Waters
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1.2.2. Greater North Sea
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1.2.3. Celtic Seas
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1.2.4. Wider Atlantic
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1.2.5. Bay of Biscay and Iberian Coast
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1.2.6. Baltic Sea
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1.3. Cetacean Species in the Northeast Atlantic
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1.3.1. Parvorder Mysticeti
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1.3.1.1. Family Balaenopteridae
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1.3.1.1.1. Blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus)
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1.3.1.1.2. Fin whale (Balaenoptera physalus)
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1.3.1.1.3. Sei whale (Balaenoptera borealis)
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1.3.1.1.4. Bryde’s Whale (Balaenoptera brydei)
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1.3.1.1.5. Common Minke whale (Balaenoptera acutorostrata)
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1.3.1.1.6. Humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae)
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1.3.1.2. Family Balaenidae
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1.3.1.2.1. North Atlantic Right whale (Eubalaena glacialis)
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1.3.1.2.2. Bowhead whale (Balaena mysticetus)
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1.3.1.3. Family Eschrichtiidae
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1.3.1.3.1. Grey Whale (Eschrichtius robustus)
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1.3.2. Parvorder Odontoceti
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1.3.2.1. Family Physeteridae
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1.3.2.1.1. Sperm Whale (Physeter macrocephalus)
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1.3.2.2. Family Kogiidae
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1.3.2.2.1. Pygmy Sperm Whale (Kogia breviceps)
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1.3.2.2.2. Dwarf Sperm Whale (Kogia sima)
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1.3.2.3. Family Ziphiidae
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1.3.2.3.1. Sowerby’s beaked whale (Mesoplodon bidens)
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1.3.2.3.2. True’s beaked whale (Mesoplodon mirus)
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1.3.2.3.3. Blainville’s beaked whale (Mesoplodon densirostris)
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1.3.2.3.4. Gervais’ Beaked whale (Mesoplodon europaeus)
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1.3.2.3.5. Cuvier’s beaked whale (Ziphius cavirostris)
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1.3.2.3.6. Northern bottlenose Whale (Hyperoodon ampullatus)
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1.3.2.4. Family Delphinidae
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1.3.2.4.1. Killer whale (Orcinus orca)
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1.3.2.4.2. False Killer Whale (Pseudorca crassidens)
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1.3.2.4.3. Long-finned pilot whale (Globicephala melas)
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1.3.2.4.4. Short-finned pilot whale (Globicephala macrorhynchus)
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1.3.2.4.5. Pygmy Killer Whale (Feresa attenuata)
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1.3.2.4.6. Risso’s dolphin (Grampus griseus)
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1.3.2.4.7. Common bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncates)
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1.3.2.4.8. White-beaked dolphins (Lagenorhynchus albirostris)
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1.3.2.4.9. Atlantic white-sided dolphin (Lagenorhynchus acutus)
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1.3.2.4.10. Striped dolphin (Stenella coeruleoalba)
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1.3.2.4.11. Atlantic Spotted dolphin (Stenella frontalis)
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1.3.2.4.12. Short Beaked common dolphin (Delphinus delphis)
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1.3.2.4.13. Rough Toothed dolphin (Steno bredanensis)
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1.3.2.4.14. Fraser’s Dolphin (Lagenodelphis hosei)
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1.3.2.5. Family Monodontidae
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1.3.2.5.1. Beluga/White Whale (Delphinapterus leucas)
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1.3.2.5.2. Narwhal (Monodon monoceros)
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1.3.2.6. Family Phocoenidae
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1.3.2.6.1. Harbour Porpoise (Phocoena phocoena)
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1.4. Cetaceans and Medieval Climate Variability
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1.5. Strandings
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1.6. Exploitable products
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1.6.1. Meat
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1.6.2. Baleen
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1.6.3. Bone
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1.6.4. Teeth and Ivory
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1.6.5. Blubber and Oil
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1.6.6. Spermaceti
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1.6.7. Ambergris
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1.7. Pre-whaling population size
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2. Cetaceans in a Medieval Historical Context
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2.1. Methods
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2.2. Pre-Medieval and Medieval perception of cetaceans
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2.3. Whaling People
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2.3.1. Norse
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2.3.2. Norse-Gaels/Hiberno-Norse
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2.3.3. Normans
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2.3.4. Danes
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2.3.5. Sámi
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2.3.6. Basques
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2.3.7. Portuguese
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2.3.8. Anglo-Saxons and the English
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2.3.9. Flemish
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2.3.10. Frisians
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2.3.11. Dutch
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2.3.12. Polish
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2.4. Stranding Events in Historical Sources
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2.5. Cetaceans, Status, and Diet
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2.5.1. Ecclesiastical Diet
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2.5.2. Noble Diet
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2.5.3. Peasant Diet
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2.6. Medieval Marine Resources Exploitation in Context
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2.7. Conclusion
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3. Cetaceans in Zooarchaeology
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3.1. Taphonomy
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3.2. Identification of Cetacean Remains
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3.2.1. Ancient DNA (aDNA)
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3.2.2. Zooarchaeology by Mass Spectrometry (ZooMS)
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3.2.3. Trace Element Analysis (TEA)
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3.2.4. Organic Residue Analysis
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3.2.5. Osteological Reference Collections
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3.2.6. Osteological Reference Manual
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3.3. Active whaling vs. Opportunistic Scavenging
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3.3.1. Species Composition
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3.3.2. Ethnographic Sources
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3.3.3. Hunting Tools
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3.3.4. Boats and Ships
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3.4. Zooarchaeology, Cetaceans, and the interpretation of socioeconomic status
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3.5. Conclusion
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4. Zooarchaeological Research on Cetaceans from Medieval Northern and Western Europe
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4.1. Methods
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4.2. Results
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4.2.1. Results: Species
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4.2.2. Results: Skeletal elements
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4.2.3. Results: Artefacts and Butchery
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4.2.3.1. High Status Artefacts
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4.2.3.1.1. Gaming Pieces
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4.2.3.1.2. Plaques
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4.2.3.1.3. Weaving swords
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4.2.3.1.4. Cleavers
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4.2.3.1.5. Caskets
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4.2.3.1.6. Swords
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4.2.3.1.7. Combs
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4.2.3.1.8. “Forks”
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4.2.3.2. Non-High-Status Artefacts
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4.2.3.2.1. Chopping Blocks
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4.2.3.2.2. Architectural Features
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4.2.3.3. Other Artefacts
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4.2.4. Results: Contexts, Status, and Trends
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4.3. Conclusion
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5. Case Studies
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5.1. Netherlands and Flanders: Zooarchaeological Analysis of Medieval Cetacean Remains from the Netherlands and Flanders
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Introduction
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Historical context
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Methodology
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Results ZooMS
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Results of morphological and osteometric analysis
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Comparison to modern stranding data
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Chronological results
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Discussion
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Conclusion
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5.2. England: “The Exploitation of Sea-Mammals in Medieval England: Bones and their Social Context”: >20 years on
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Introduction
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Methodology
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Historical Sources
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Zooarchaeology
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Discussion
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Conclusion
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5.3. Grey whale (Eschrichtius robustus): Greys in Grey Literature: The Demise of the North Atlantic Grey Whale (Eschrichtius robustus)
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Introduction
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Dispersal into the Atlantic
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Material and methods
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Results
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Discussion
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- Distribution
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- Killer whale predation on Atlantic grey whale?
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- Active whaling or opportunistic scavenging
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Conclusion
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6. Social Implications of Cetacean Exploitation in Medieval Northern and Western Europe
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- Normans
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- Basques
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- Anglo-Saxons and the English
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- Danes
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- Polish
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- Portuguese
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- Sami
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- Norse
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- Norse-Gaels
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- Frisians
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- Dutch
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- Flemish
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Conclusion
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References
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Appendix
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References used in Appendix
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Back Cover
Citable Link
Published: 2020
Publisher: BAR Publishing
- 9781407357218 (ebook)
- 9781407357201 (paper)
BAR Number: S2998