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London’s Roman Tools: Craft, agriculture and experience in an ancient city
Owen Humphreys
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London was the administrative centre of Roman Britain, and its largest city. After centuries of excavation, Londinium is one of the best understood cities in the Empire. London is also home to one of the most exceptional collections of craft and agricultural tools in the Roman world. London’s Roman Tools moves beyond typological analysis to show how Roman artefacts can illuminate the lives of ordinary people. Using a framework of practice theory, it explores the lives of Roman craft and agricultural workers in London; a diverse and changing group which has rarely been examined previously. Also provided is an illustrated catalogue of 837 Roman tools from London. Many are exceptionally well preserved, some are unknown elsewhere, and most have not previously been published. A detailed typological discussion synthesises decades of developments in French and German literature with new insights from the London material.
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Cover
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Title page
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Copyright page
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Subseries page
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Other titles in the subseries
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Of Related Interest
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Dedication
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Acknowledgements
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Contents
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Abstract
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1. Introduction: Artefacts at Work
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1.1 Roman London: A Brief Introduction
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1.1.1 The Development of London
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1.1.2 Geography and Zoning
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1.1.3 The People of London
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1.2 Putting Artefacts to Work: Previous Research and New Approaches
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1.2.1 Classical Sources, Secondary Historical Works and Dictionaries
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1.2.2 Ironwork Hoard Reports
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1.2.3 Museum Catalogues
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1.2.4 Studies of Ploughs and Cultivation Tools
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1.2.5 Craft Tool and Trade Histories
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1.2.6 Artefact Production Studies
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1.2.7 Regional Artefact Studies
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1.2.8 Excavation Reports
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1.2.9 Conclusions
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1.3 Material Culture and Society: Bridging the Gap
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1.3.1 Artefacts and Technology
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1.3.2 Artefacts and Identity
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1.3.3 Artefacts, Agency and Practice
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1.3.4 Conclusions
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2. London’s Roman Tools
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2.1 Identifying and Recording London’s Tools
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2.1.1 Scope
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2.1.2 The Collections
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2.1.3 Recording Methods
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2.2 The Dataset
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2.2.1 Distribution
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2.2.2 Dating
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2.2.3 Function
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3. Manufacture: Style, Provenance and Practice
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3.1 Makers’ Marks
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3.1.1 Makers’ Names in London
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Agathangelus
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Aprilis
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Hermes/Herma
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Martial
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Titulus
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. . . INI . . .
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3.1.2 Discussion
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3.2 Provenance and Identity
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3.2.1 Evidence of ‘Natives’
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3.2.2 Evidence of Local Manufacture
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3.2.3 Evidence of Trade and Immigration
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3.2.4 Evidence of the Military
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3.3 Form and Manufacturing Practice
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3.3.1 Degrees of Standardisation
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3.3.2 Cross-Type Styles
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3.3.3 Differential Execution
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3.3.4 Improvised and Modified Tools
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3.3.5 Composite Objects
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3.4 Conclusions
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4. Woodwork
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4.1 Woodworkers in the Roman World
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4.2 Woodworking Sites in Roman London
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4.3 Harvesting and Supplying Timber
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4.4 General Woodwork
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4.5 Structural Carpentry
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4.5.1 Box Hewing
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4.5.2 Splitting
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4.5.3 Sawing
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4.5.4 A Late Roman Technological Change?
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4.6 Carving
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4.7 Cooperage
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4.8 Joinery
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4.9 Lathe-Turning
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4.10 Vehicle Manufacture
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4.11 Aspects of Ownership
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4.12 Workshop Furniture and Embodiment
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4.13 Conclusions
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5. Agriculture, Horticulture and Gardening
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5.1 Growing Plants in Roman Towns
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5.1.1 Gardens and Gardeners
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5.1.2 Fields and Farmers
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5.1.3 Ritual and Social Aspects of Urban Agriculture
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5.2 Agricultural and Horticultural Sites in Roman London
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5.2.1 Ornamental Gardens
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5.2.2 Market Gardens, Orchards and Small Plots
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5.2.3 Fields and Farms
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5.2.4 The Distribution of Agricultural Tools
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5.3 Small Plot Cultivation
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5.4 Field Cultivation
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5.5 Harvesting
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5.6 Garden Maintenance
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5.7 Conclusions
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6. Metalwork
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6.1 Metals and Metalworkers in the Roman World
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6.2 Metalworking Sites in Roman London
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6.2.1 Metalworking in the London Area
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6.2.2 Early Roman Metalworking in London
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6.2.3 The Southwark Metalworking Zone
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6.2.4 Late Roman Metalworking Sites
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6.2.5 Precious Metalworking Sites
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6.2.6 The Distribution of Metalworking Tools
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6.3 Mining, Making and Supplying Metals
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6.4 Casting
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6.5 Shaping and Forging
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6.5.1 Chasing, Repoussé and Embossing
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6.5.2 Vessel Raising
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6.6 ‘Machining’
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6.6.1 Lathes in Metalwork
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6.7 Gilding
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6.8 Soldering
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6.9 Assaying, Minting and Official Control
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6.10 Aspects of Ownership
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6.11 Conclusions
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7. Leatherwork
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7.1 Leatherworkers in the Roman World
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7.1.1 Leather-Makers
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7.1.2 Leatherworkers
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7.2 Making and Supplying Leather to Roman London
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7.2.1 Leather and Skin Supply
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7.2.2 Leather-Making Technology
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Preparation
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Tanning
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Finishing/Currying
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7.2.3 Leather-Making Practice in London
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7.2.4 Tanning and Currying Sites in Roman London
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7.3 Leatherworking Sites in London
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7.4 Laying-Out and Marking
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7.5 Primary Cutting
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7.6 Assembly
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7.6.1 Nailing
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7.6.2 Stitching
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7.2.3 Thonging
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7.7 Decoration
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7.7.1 Openwork Decoration
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7.7.2 Impressed and Stamped Decoration
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7.7.3 Stitched Decoration
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7.7.4 Colouring and Gilding
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7.8 Conclusions
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8. Masonry and Stonework
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8.1 Masons and Stoneworkers in Roman London
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8.2 Raw Materials Supply to London
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8.2.1 Stone
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8.2.2 Ceramic Building Materials (CBM)
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8.2.3 Plaster, Mortar and Pigments
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8.3 Stone-Shaping and Carving
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8.3.1 Rough Shaping
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8.3.2 Stone-Carving
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8.3.3 Stone-Sawing
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8.3.4 Other Stone-Shaping Practices
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8.4 Quernstone Maintenance
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8.5 Moving Stone Blocks
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8.6 Plastering and Mortaring
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8.6.1 Mixing
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8.6.2 Keying
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8.6.3 Applying
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8.6.4 Painting
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8.7 Conclusions
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9. Pottery-Making
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9.1 Raw Materials Supply to London
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9.2 Potters and Pottery-Making Sites in London
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9.3 Pottery-Making Practice in London
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9.4 Conclusions
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10. Animal Husbandry
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10.1 Equids and Grooms in the Roman World
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10.2 Equids in Roman London
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10.3 Equid Care in London
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11. Bone-, Antler-, Ivory- and Horn-Working
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11.1 Skeletal Material-Workers in the Roman World
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11.2 Skeletal-Material-Working Sites in London
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11.3 Skeletal-Material-Working Practice in London
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12. Glassworking
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13. Conclusions, Reflections and Future Directions
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13.1 Tools and Typologies
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13.2 New Approaches
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13.3 Economy
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13.4 Technology and Society
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13.5 Beyond This Book
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14. Typology
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14.1 Introduction
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14.2 Adzes (ADZ)
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Technology
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Typology
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Iron-Age Adze Types
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Roman Adze-Hammer Types
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14.3 Anvils (ANV)
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Technology
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Typology
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14.4 Awls, Bradawls, Bodkins and Scribers (AWL)
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Technology
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Typology
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Type 1 – Solid Diamond-/Octahedral-Shaped Handle Forms
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Type 2 – Solid Octagonal-Sectioned Handle Forms
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Type 3 – Solid Square-Sectioned Handle Forms
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Type 4 – Solid Rectangular-Sectioned Handle Forms
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Type 5 – Nail Forms
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Type 6 – Carrot-Shaped Awls
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Type 7 – Awls with Clenched Tangs
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Type 8 – Short-Tanged Awls
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Type 9 – Double-Ended Awls
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Type 10 – Socketed Forms
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Awls with Surviving Handles
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Miscellaneous Awls
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14.5 Axes (AXE)
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Technology
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Typology
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Narrow-Bladed Axes (Types 1–10)
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Bearded Axes (Types 11–17)
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T-Shaped Axes (Types 18–21)
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Double-Bladed Axes
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Metric Analysis
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Dating
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14.6 Bench Knives (BEN)
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Technology
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Typology
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14.7 Billhooks (BIL)
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Technology
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Typology
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14.8 Boring Tools (BOR)
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Technology
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Typology
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Handle Attachment Types
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Tip Types
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Metric Analysis
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Tang Size
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Tip Size
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14.9 Brush Holders (BRU)
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Technology
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Typology
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14.10 Chalk Line (CHA)
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14.11 Chisels: Woodworking (CHI)
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Technology
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Typology
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Handle Attachment Types
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Blade Types
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Type A
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Type B
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Type C
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Type D
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Type E
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Type F
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Type G
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Metric Analysis
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14.12 Chisels: Cold (COL)
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Technology
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Typology
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14.13 Chisels: Improvised (CIM)
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14.14 Chisels: Hot Cutting (HOT)
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Technology
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Typology
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14.15 Chisels: Mason’s (MAS)
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Technology
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Typology
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14.16 Chisels: Thonging (THO)
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14.17 Creasers (CRE)
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14.18 Crowbars and Clawbars (CBR)
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Technology
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Typology
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14.19 Croze Irons (CRO)
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Technology
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Typology
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14.20 Curry Combs (CUR)
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Technology
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Typology
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14.21 Dies, Stamps and Branding Irons (DIE)
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Technology
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Typology
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Type 1
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Type 2
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Type 3
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Type 4
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Shaping Dies
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14.22 Drawknives and Tanning Knives (DRW)
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Technology
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Typology
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Drawknives
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Tanning Knives
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14.23 Engraving Tools (ENG)
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Technology
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Typology
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14.24 Files and Rasps (FIL)
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Technology
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Typology
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Tooth Form
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Blade Form
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14.25 Forks (FOR)
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Technology
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Typology
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Handle-Attachment Types
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14.26 Gouges (GOU)
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Technology
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Typology
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Tanged Gouge Types
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Solid-Handled Gouge Types
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14.27 Hammers (HAM)
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Technology
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Typology
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14.28 Hearth Management Tools (HEA)
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Technology
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Typology
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Barley-Twist Hearth Tools
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Other Pokers
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Other Fire Shovels
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14.29 Hoes (HOE)
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Technology
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Typology
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Type 1 – Adze-Like Hoes
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Type 2 – Broad-Bladed Hoes
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Type 3 – Hoe/Picks
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Type 4 – Hoes/Forks
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Type 5 – Entrenching Tools
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Type 6 – Two-Tined Hoes
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Type 7 – Antler Hoes
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14.30 Leatherworking Knives (LEA)
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Technology
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Typology
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Half-Moon Knives
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Angled Knives
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Small Knives
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14.31 Mattocks/Dolabrae (MAT)
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Technology
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Typology
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14.32 ‘Ox Goads’ (OXG)
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Technology
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Typology
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14.33 Palette Knife (PAL)
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14.34 Picks (PIC)
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Technology
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Typology
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Quarry Picks
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Sculptor’s Picks
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Long-Bladed Picks
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Millstone Picks
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14.35 Plane Irons (PLA)
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Technology
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Typology
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Metric Analysis
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14.36 Plough Equipment (PLO)
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Technology
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Typology
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Ploughshares
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Coulters
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14.37 Punches: Fine Metalworking (FIN)
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Technology
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Typology
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14.38 Punches: Hole Punches (HOL)
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Technology
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Typology
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14.39 Punches: Hot Punches and Drifts (PUN)
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Technology
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Typology
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Round Punches
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Square Punches
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Drifts
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14.40 Rake and Harrow Tines (RAK)
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Technology
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Typology
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14.41 Saws (SAW)
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Technology
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Typology
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Single-Sided Saw-Blade Fragments
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Double-Sided Saw-Blade Fragments
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Serrated Knives/Pruning Saws
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14.42 Scrapers and Ribs (SCR)
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Technology
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Typology
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Ribs
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Card Scraper
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Tanged Scrapers
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14.43 Shears (SHE)
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Technology
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Typology
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Type 1
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Type 2
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Type 3
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Type 4
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14.44 Shovels (SHO)
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14.45 Sickles, Reaping Hooks and Pruning Hooks (SIC)
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Technology
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Typology
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Handle-Attachment Types
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Blade Types
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Miniature Hooked Blades
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14.46 Soldering Irons (SOL)
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Technology
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Typology
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14.47 Spades (SPA)
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Technology
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Typology
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Type A
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Type B
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Type C
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Type D
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Other
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14.48 Spatulas (WXS)
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Technology
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Typology
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Type A
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Type B
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Type C
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Type D
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14.49 Spear-Shaped Spatulas (SPE)
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Technology
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Typology
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14.50 Other Spatulate Tools (OSP)
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14.51 Spuds, Slicks and Barking Knives (SPU)
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Technology
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Typology
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14.52 Three-Piece Tongs (THR)
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Technology
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Typology
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14.53 Tongs and Pincers (TON)
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Technology
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Typology
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Size
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Jaw Form
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14.54 Trowels (TRO)
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Technology
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Typology
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Barley-Twist Trowels
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14.55 Turf Cutters (TUR)
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Technology
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Typology
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14.56 Tweezers (TWE)
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Technology
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Typology
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14.57 Twitches (TWI)
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Technology
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Typology
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14.58 Wedges (WED)
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15. Catalogue and Plates
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Adzes (ADZ)
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Anvils (ANV)
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Awls (AWL)
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Axes (AXE)
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Bench Knives (BEN)
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Billhooks (BIL)
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Boring Tools (BOR)
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BOR56 (MoL 1510); drill bit; type F (iron)
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Brush Handles (BRU)
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Crowbars (CBR)
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Chalk Lines (CHA)
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Chisels (CHI)
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Improvised Chisels (CIM)
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Cold Chisels (COL)
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Creasers (CRE)
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Crozes (CRO)
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Curry Combs (CUR)
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Dies (DIE)
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Drawknives (DRW)
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Engraving Tools (ENG)
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Files (FIL)
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Fine Metalworking Punches (FIN)
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Forks (FOR)
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Gouges (GOU)
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Hammers (HAM)
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Hearth Tools (HEA)
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Hoes (HOE)
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Hole Punches (HOL)
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Hot Cutting Tools (HOT)
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Leatherworking Knives (LEA)
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Mason’s Chisels (MAS)
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Mattocks (MAT)
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Other Spatulate Tools (OSP)
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Ox Goads (OXG)
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Palette Knives (PAL)
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Picks (PIC)
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Plane Irons (PLA)
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Plough Furniture (PLO)
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Punches (PUN)
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Rake Tines (RAK)
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Saws (SAW)
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Scrapers (SCR)
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Shears (SHE)
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Shovels (SHO)
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Sickles (SIC)
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Soldering Irons (SOL)
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Spade Shoes (SPA)
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Spear-Shaped Spatulas (SPE)
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Spuds (SPU)
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Thonging Chisels (THO)
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Three-Piece Tongs (THR)
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Tongs (TON)
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Trowels (TRO)
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Tweezers (TWE)
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Twitches (TWI)
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Wedges (WED)
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Wax Spatulas (WXS)
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Bibliography
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Primary Sources
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Secondary Sources
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Citable Link
Published: 2021
Publisher: BAR Publishing
- 9781407357386 (paper)
- 9781407357393 (ebook)
BAR Number: B663
- Western Europe and Britain
- Catalogues / Collections / Indexes / Bibliographies
- Identity / Gender / Childhood / Ethnicity / Romanization
- Museum Studies / Conservation / Heritage / Education
- Agriculture / Farming / Husbandry / Land-use / Irrigation
- Roman
- Metallurgy / Mining
- Metal Objects
- Craft working (general titles, bone, glass, textiles, etc.)
- Trade / Exchange / Travel / Economy