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  2. The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language

The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language

Rodney Huddleston 2002 © Cambridge University Press
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  • 9781316958124 (ebook)
  • 9780521431460 (hardcover)
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  • Table of Contents

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  • Cover
  • The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language
  • Title
  • Copyright
  • Contents
  • Contributors
  • Notational conventions
    • Abbreviations of grammatical terms and special symbols
    • Presentation of examples
    • Specialist passages
  • Tree diagrams
  • Preface
  • 1 Preliminaries
    • 1 The aim of this book
    • 2 Prescriptivism, tradition, and the justification of grammars
      • 2.1 Prescriptive and descriptive approaches: goals and coverage
      • 2.2 Disagreement between descriptivist and prescriptivist work
    • 3 Speech and writing
      • 3.1 The representation of English pronunciation
        • 3.1.1 Rhotic and non-rhotic accents
        • 3.1.2 An accent-neutral phonological representation
      • 3.2 Pronunciation and spelling
    • 4 Theoretical framework
      • 4.1 Description and theory
      • 4.2 Basic concepts in syntax
        • 4.2.1 Constituent structure
        • 4.2.2 Syntactic categories
        • 4.2.3 Grammatical constructions and functions
      • 4.3 Morphology, inflectional and lexical
      • 4.4 Defining grammatical concepts
    • 5 Semantics, pragmatics, and meaning relations
      • 5.1 Truth conditions and entailment
      • 5.2 Non-truth-conditional aspects of sentence meaning
      • 5.3 Pragmatics and conversational implicatures
      • 5.4 Pragmatic presupposition
  • 2 Syntactic overview
    • 1 Sentence and clause
    • 2 Canonical and non-canonical clauses
    • 3 The verb
    • 4 The clause: complements
    • 5 Nouns and noun phrases
    • 6 Adjectives and adverbs
    • 7 Prepositions and preposition phrases
    • 8 The clause: adjuncts
    • 9 Negation
    • 10 Clause type and illocutionary force
    • 11 Content clauses and reported speech
    • 12 Relative constructions and unbounded dependencies
    • 13 Comparative constructions
    • 14 Non-finite and verbless clauses
    • 15 Coordination and supplementation
    • 16 Information packaging
    • 17 Deixis and anaphora
  • 3 The verb
    • 1 Inflectional categories of the verb 74
      • 1.1 Summary presentation of the categories 74
      • 1.2 Syncretism 76
      • 1.3 The past participle 77
      • 1.4 The gerund-participle 80
      • 1.5 The plain form 83
      • 1.6 The present tense forms 84
      • 1.7 The preterite and irrealis were 85
      • 1.8 Primary and secondary forms and the category of finiteness 88
        • 1.8.1 Finiteness as a syntactic rather than inflectional category in English 88
        • 1.8.2 Constructions with a plain form verb: imperative, subjunctive, and infinitival 89
      • 1.9 Negative forms 90
    • 2 Auxiliary verbs 92
      • 2.1 Distinctive syntactic properties of auxiliary verbs 92
        • 2.1.1 Primary verb negation 94
        • 2.1.2 Subject–auxiliary inversion 94
        • 2.1.3 Emphatic polarity 97
        • 2.1.4 Code: elliptical stranding and the pro-verb do 99
        • 2.1.5 Position and form 101
      • 2.2 Issues of definition and analysis 102
      • 2.3 Combinations of auxiliary verbs 104
      • 2.4 Distinctive properties of modal auxiliaries 106
      • 2.5 The auxiliaries considered in turn 108
        • 2.5.1 Can and will; would rather 108
        • 2.5.2 Must 108
        • 2.5.3 Shall and may 109
        • 2.5.4 Ought 109
        • 2.5.5 Need and dare 109
        • 2.5.6 Have, have got, had better 111
        • 2.5.7 Be 113
        • 2.5.8 Do 114
        • 2.5.9 Use 115
    • 3 Tense, aspect, and mood: preliminaries 115
      • 3.1 Categories of form and categories of meaning 115
      • 3.2 Kinds of situation and aspectuality 118
        • 3.2.1 A broad classification of situations 118
        • 3.2.2 States vs occurrences 119
        • 3.2.3 Achievements, accomplishments, and activities 120
        • 3.2.4 Multiple situations 123
        • 3.2.5 Perfective and imperfective aspectuality 124
    • 4 Primary tense 125
      • 4.1 Past, present, and future as relational categories 125
      • 4.2 The present tense 127
        • 4.2.1 Present time reference 127
        • 4.2.2 The ‘timeless’ use of the present tense 129
        • 4.2.3 Extension of the present tense into past time territory 130
        • 4.2.4 Future time reference in main clauses: the present futurate 131
        • 4.2.5 Deictic future time in subordinate clauses 134
        • 4.2.6 Future interpretation of a non-deictic present tense 136
      • 4.3 The preterite, as used to express anteriority 136
        • 4.3.1 Past time reference 137
        • 4.3.2 Past time reference in combination with politeness/diffidence 138
        • 4.3.3 The past futurate 138
        • 4.3.4 Non-deictic anteriority 139
    • 5 Perfect tense 139
      • 5.1 The perfect as a non-deictic past tense 140
      • 5.2 Complex anteriority: continuative and non-continuative perfects 141
      • 5.3 Present perfect vs the simple preterite 142
        • 5.3.1 Present perfect as a compound tense 142
        • 5.3.2 The experiential perfect 143
        • 5.3.3 The resultative perfect 145
        • 5.3.4 The perfect of recent past 145
      • 5.4 Non-present perfects 146
      • 5.5 Omissibility of the perfect 147
      • 5.6 Scope of the perfect 147
    • 6 Further uses of the past tenses 148
      • 6.1 Modal remoteness 148
      • 6.2 The backshifted preterite 151
        • 6.2.1 Backshifted preterite vs ordinary preterite 151
        • 6.2.2 Obligatory vs optional backshifting 155
      • 6.3 Primary vs secondary past tense 159
    • 7 Temporalinterpretationofconstructionswithoutprimarytense
    • 8 Progressive aspect 162
      • 8.1 Progressive aspectuality 162
      • 8.2 Some verb classes 168
      • 8.3 Non-aspectual uses of the progressive 171
    • 9 Mood and modality 172
      • 9.1 Modality and its expression 172
      • 9.2 Dimensions of modality 175
        • 9.2.1 Strength of modality 175
        • 9.2.2 Kind of modality 177
        • 9.2.3 Degree of modality and modal harmony 179
      • 9.3 Necessity and possibility: must, need, may, and can 180
        • 9.3.1 Epistemic necessity and possibility 180
        • 9.3.2 Deontic necessity and possibility 182
        • 9.3.3 Dynamic necessity and possibility 184
      • 9.4 Idiomatic should, and ought 186
        • 9.4.1 Medium strength modality 186
        • 9.4.2 Low-degree modality 187
      • 9.5 Will 188
        • 9.5.1 Epistemic modality, including futurity 188
        • 9.5.2 Dynamic modality 192
        • 9.5.3 Deontic modality 194
      • 9.6 Shall 194
        • 9.6.1 Deontic modality 194
        • 9.6.2 Non-deontic uses and the choice between shall and will 195
      • 9.7 Had better and auxiliary dare 196
      • 9.8 The preterite forms could, might, would, should 196
        • 9.8.1 Past time 196
        • 9.8.2 Backshift 198
        • 9.8.3 Modal remoteness 198
        • 9.8.4 The status of should and might as preterites 202
      • 9.9 Modal auxiliaries and the scope of the perfect 203
      • 9.10 Modal auxiliaries in negative and interrogative clauses 204
      • 9.11 Lexical modals, have (got), and quasi-modal be 205
    • 10 Future time 208
      • 10.1 The lack of a future tense in English 208
      • 10.2 Idiomatic be going 210
  • 4 The clause: complements
    • 1 Elements of clause structure: an overview 215
      • 1.1 Types of complement and canonical clause structures 216
      • 1.2 Complements vs adjuncts 219
    • 2 Semantic roles 228
      • 2.1 Some preliminary issues 228
      • 2.2 Some major semantic roles 230
      • 2.3 Subject and direct object selection in canonical transitive clauses 233
    • 3 The subject 235
      • 3.1 Distinctive grammatical properties of the subject 236
      • 3.2 Subject in non-canonical clauses 239
        • 3.2.1 The passive and preposing constructions 239
        • 3.2.2 The extraposition and existential constructions 241
        • 3.2.3 Subject–auxiliary inversion and subject postposing 243
    • 4 Direct and indirect objects 244
      • 4.1 The object in canonical monotransitive clauses 245
      • 4.2 Object and extraposed object 247
      • 4.3 Ditransitive clauses 248
    • 5 Predicatives and related elements 251
      • 5.1 Distinctive syntactic properties of PCs 253
      • 5.2 Location, goal, and source 257
      • 5.3 Obligatory and optional predicatives 261
      • 5.4 Classification of verbs taking predicative complements 263
      • 5.5 Copular clauses 266
        • 5.5.1 Ascriptive and specifying uses of be 266
        • 5.5.2 Formal differences between ascriptive and specifying copular clauses 268
    • 6 Special verb + preposition combinations 272
      • 6.1 Prepositional verbs 274
        • 6.1.1 Comparison between constructions with specified and unspecified prepositions 275
        • 6.1.2 Constructions containing prepositional verbs 277
      • 6.2 The ‘verb – particle – object’ construction 280
      • 6.3 Verbal idioms containing intransitive prepositions 283
        • 6.3.1 Lexicalisation and fossilisation 283
        • 6.3.2 Constructions containing verb + intransitive preposition idioms 286
      • 6.4 Verbal idioms containing NP + transitive preposition 288
      • 6.5 Other types of verbal idiom 289
    • 7 Light verbs 290
      • 7.1 General issues 290
      • 7.2 Survey of the main light verbs 293
    • 8 Verbs with multiple patterns of complementation 296
      • 8.1 Transitive/intransitive contrasts 298
        • 8.1.1 Type i 298
        • 8.1.2 Type ii 300
        • 8.1.3 Type iii 300
        • 8.1.4 Type iv 306
      • 8.2 Ditransitive/monotransitive contrasts 308
        • 8.2.1 Type i 308
        • 8.2.2 Type ii 312
        • 8.2.3 Type iii 312
        • 8.2.4 Type iv 313
      • 8.3 Further core/non-core contrasts 313
        • 8.3.1 Type i 313
        • 8.3.2 Type ii 318
        • 8.3.3 Type iii 319
        • 8.3.4 Type iv 319
      • 8.4 Contrastsbetweenseparate complementsanda single combinedcomplement 320
  • 5 Nouns and noun phrases
    • 1 Distinctive properties of nouns and NPs 326
    • 2 Overview of noun classes and NP structure 328
    • 3 Number and countability 333
      • 3.1 Count and non-count nouns 334
      • 3.2 Singular and plural nouns 340
        • 3.2.1 Plural-only nouns with the ·s ending 340
        • 3.2.2 Other plural-only nouns 345
        • 3.2.3 Singular nouns with the ·s ending 345
        • 3.2.4 Variation between singular and plural construals 348
      • 3.3 Non-count quantificational nouns 349
      • 3.4 Number agreement and selection within the NP 352
    • 4 The determiner function 354
    • 5 Quantification 358
      • 5.1 Existential quantification, universal quantification, and negation 358
      • 5.2 Scalar entailments and implicatures 363
    • 6 The articles and the category of definiteness 368
      • 6.1 The definite article the 368
      • 6.2 The indefinite article a 371
    • 7 Other determinatives 373
      • 7.1 The demonstrative determinatives this and that 373
      • 7.2 The personal determinatives wed and youd 374
      • 7.3 The universal determinatives all and both 374
      • 7.4 The distributive determinatives each and every 378
      • 7.5 The existential determinatives some and any 380
      • 7.6 Cardinal numerals 385
      • 7.7 The disjunctive determinatives either and neither 387
      • 7.8 The negative determinatives no and none 389
      • 7.9 The alternative-additive determinative another 391
      • 7.10 The positive paucal determinatives a little, a few, several. etc. 391
      • 7.11 The degree determinatives many, much, few, little 393
      • 7.12 The sufficiency determinatives enough, sufficient 396
      • 7.13 The interrogative determinatives which, what, whichever, whatever 397
      • 7.14 The relative determinatives which, what, whichever, whatever 398
    • 8 Referential and non-referential uses of NPs 399
      • 8.1 Reference and denotation 399
      • 8.2 The contrast between referential and non-referential NPs 400
      • 8.3 Some special cases of non-referential NPs 402
      • 8.4 Restricted non-referential uses of the articles 407
      • 8.5 Restricted non-referential interpretations of bare NPs 409
    • 9 Fused-head and elliptical NPs 410
      • 9.1 Overview of the fused-head construction 410
      • 9.2 Fusion of determiner and head 412
      • 9.3 Fusion of internal modifier and head 415
      • 9.4 Fusion of predeterminer and head 418
      • 9.5 The fused-head analysis compared with alternatives 419
      • 9.6 Compound determinatives 423
      • 9.7 Ellipsis of postmodifiers 424
    • 10 Pronouns 425
      • 10.1 Subcategories of pronoun 425
        • 10.1.1 Personal pronouns 425
        • 10.1.2 Reciprocal pronouns 428
        • 10.1.3 Interrogative and relative pronouns 428
        • 10.1.4 Deictic temporal pronouns 429
      • 10.2 The structure of NPs with pronouns as head 429
    • 11 Determinative Phrases 431
    • 12 Predeterminer modifiers 433
    • 13 Peripheral modifiers 436
    • 14 Internal dependents 439
      • 14.1 Complements 439
      • 14.2 Modifiers 444
      • 14.3 Appositive modifiers 447
      • 14.4 Composite nominals vs compound nouns 448
    • 15 Order of elements in NP structure 452
    • 16 Case 455
      • 16.1 Preliminaries 455
      • 16.2 Nominative and accusative 458
        • 16.2.1 Non-coordinate personal pronouns/determinatives 458
        • 16.2.2 Coordinative constructions 462
        • 16.2.3 Who and whom 464
      • 16.3 Six types of genitive construction 467
      • 16.4 Genitive pronouns 470
      • 16.5 Subject-determiner genitives 472
        • 16.5.1 Combination of determiner and subject functions 472
        • 16.5.2 Semantic comparison with the subject in clause structure 473
        • 16.5.3 Alternating patterns of complementation 475
      • 16.6 Head and phrasal genitives 479
      • 16.7 The adjective own in construction with genitives 482
    • 17 Gender and pronoun–antecedent agreement 484
      • 17.1 Gender as a grammatical category 484
      • 17.2 Agreement: personal pronouns and antecedents 486
        • 17.2.1 Nature of the agreement relation 486
        • 17.2.2 Masculine, feminine, and neuter 488
        • 17.2.3 Common noun gender classes 489
        • 17.2.4 Singular pronouns denoting humans without specification of sex 491
        • 17.2.5 Person and number 495
      • 17.3 Agreement between relative pronouns and their antecedents 497
    • 18 Subject–verb agreement 499
      • 18.1 Simple agreement 499
      • 18.2 Semantically motivated overrides 501
      • 18.3 Further overrides and alternations 504
      • 18.4 Coordination within the subject 507
    • 19 Number in predicatives and their predicands 510
      • 19.1 The semantic nature of matching number 510
      • 19.2 Distributive and non-distributive predicatives in non-quantificational constructions 513
      • 19.3 Distributive interpretations in quantified constructions 515
    • 20 Proper names, proper nouns, and vocatives 515
      • 20.1 The distinction between proper names and proper nouns 515
      • 20.2 The form of proper names 516
        • 20.2.1 Strong and weak proper names 517
        • 20.2.2 Proper names with simple and composite heads 518
      • 20.3 Embellishments 519
      • 20.4 Secondary uses of proper names 520
      • 20.5 NPs in vocative function 522
  • 6 Adjectives and adverbs
    • 1 Preliminaries 526
    • 2 Criterial properties of adjectives 527
      • 2.1 Function 528
      • 2.2 Grading 531
      • 2.3 Adverbs as dependents 535
      • 2.4 Adjectives in comparison with words of other categories 536
        • 2.4.1 Adjectives vs nouns 536
        • 2.4.2 Adjectives vs determinatives 538
        • 2.4.3 Adjectives vs verbs 540
    • 3 The structure of AdjPs 542
      • 3.1 Complementation 542
      • 3.2 Modification 547
      • 3.3 Structural differences correlating with the function of the AdjP 550
    • 4 Restricted function for adjectives 553
      • 4.1 Attributive-only adjectives 553
      • 4.2 Never-attributive adjectives 559
      • 4.3 Two intensificatory attributive constructions 561
    • 5 Adverbs: delimitation of the category 562
      • 5.1 Adverbs as modifiers of heads that are not nouns 562
      • 5.2 The morphological form of adverbs 565
    • 6 The structure of AdvPs 570
      • 6.1 Complementation 571
      • 6.2 Modification 572
    • 7 The external syntax of AdvPs 574
      • 7.1 Linear position of AdvPs in clause structure 575
      • 7.2 Adverbial modifiers of adjectives and adverbs 582
      • 7.3 Focusing modifiers 586
        • 7.3.1 Restrictive focusing modifiers 587
        • 7.3.2 Additive focusing modifiers 592
  • 7 Prepositions and preposition phrases
    • 1 The category of prepositions 598
    • 2 Distinctive properties of prepositions in English 603
      • 2.1 Overview 603
      • 2.2 Prepositions vs adjectives 606
      • 2.3 Prepositions vs verbs 610
      • 2.4 Prepositions vs adverbs 612
    • 3 Idiomatic and fossilised expressions headed by a preposition 617
      • 3.1 Expressions of the type for the sake of X, at odds with X 618
      • 3.2 Other types of expression: on the grounds that . . . , up against, in brief 623
    • 4 The position of a complement relative to the head preposition 626
      • 4.1 Preposition stranding: What was she referring to? 626
      • 4.2 Prepositions following their complement in PP structure 631
      • 4.3 PPs of the form spoonful by spoonful 632
      • 4.4 Preposing in PP structure 633
    • 5 The structure and functions of PPs 635
      • 5.1 Complementation 635
      • 5.2 Modification 643
      • 5.3 Functions of PPs 646
    • 6 Grammaticised prepositions 647
      • 6.1 Meanings of prototypical prepositions 647
      • 6.2 Syntactic uses of grammaticised prepositions 653
  • 8 The clause: adjuncts
    • 1 Preliminaries 665
    • 2 Manner, means, and instrument 670
      • 2.1 Manner 670
      • 2.2 Means and instrument 673
    • 3 Act-related adjuncts 675
    • 4 Location and change of location in space 679
      • 4.1 Overview of categories 680
      • 4.2 Location 680
      • 4.3 Change of location: goal, source, path, and direction 684
      • 4.4 Metaphorical extension of the locative categories to other domains 689
    • 5 Spatial extent and scalar change 690
      • 5.1 Overall extent and terminal-point extent 690
      • 5.2 Extent in various domains 691
      • 5.3 Non-temporal extent: further syntactic and semantic issues 692
      • 5.4 Scalar location 693
    • 6 Temporal location 694
      • 6.1 Adjuncts and complements 694
      • 6.2 Semantic types 695
      • 6.3 The form of temporal location expressions 696
      • 6.4 Further issues 699
    • 7 Temporal extent: duration 702
      • 7.1 Similaritiesanddifferencesbetween the temporalandspatialdomains 702
      • 7.2 Thecontrastbetweenboundingandnon-boundingduration elements 703
      • 7.3 Bounding duration elements 704
      • 7.4 Non-bounding duration adjuncts 709
    • 8 Polarity-sensitive aspectual adjuncts 710
    • 9 Adjuncts of frequency 713
    • 10 Adjuncts of serial order 719
    • 11 Degree 720
    • 12 Cause and result 725
      • 12.1 The two subtypes of adjuncts of cause 726
      • 12.2 Purpose 727
      • 12.3 Reason 731
      • 12.4 Result 732
    • 13 Adjuncts of concession 734
      • 13.1 Concessive meaning 734
      • 13.2 Syntactic issues 735
      • 13.3 Semantically related constructions 737
    • 14 Conditional adjuncts and conditional constructions 738
      • 14.1 Open conditional constructions 739
        • 14.1.1 Meaning and implicatures of open if conditionals 739
        • 14.1.2 Issues of time, modality, and polarity 743
        • 14.1.3 If in combination with only and even 746
      • 14.2 Remote conditional constructions 748
        • 14.2.1 Meaning and implicatures 748
        • 14.2.2 The form of remote conditionals 751
      • 14.3 Unless 755
      • 14.4 Other explicitly or implicitly conditional constructions 756
      • 14.5 Scope, focus, and stacking 760
      • 14.6 Exhaustive conditionals 761
        • 14.6.1 The governed construction 761
        • 14.6.2 The ungoverned construction 762
        • 14.6.3 Further issues 764
    • 15 Domain adjuncts 765
    • 16 Modal adjuncts 767
    • 17 Evaluative adjuncts 771
    • 18 Speech act-related adjuncts 773
    • 19 Connective adjuncts 775
    • 20 Linear position of adjuncts 779
      • 20.1 Front, central, and end positions 779
      • 20.2 Central position in auxiliary constructions 782
  • 9 Negation
    • 1 Introduction
      • 1.1 Tests for clause polarity
      • 1.2 An overview of negation types
      • 1.3 Scope and focus of negation
        • 1.3.1 The concept ‘having scope over’
        • 1.3.2 Relative scope: wide scope negation and narrow scope negation
        • 1.3.3 Focus
    • 2 Verbal negation
      • 2.1 Primary verbal negation
      • 2.2 Imperative negation
      • 2.3 Secondary verbal negation
        • 2.3.1 Formal marking of secondary negation
        • 2.3.2 Secondary negation with not following an auxiliary verb
    • 3 Non-verbal negation
      • 3.1 Not as a marker of non-verbal negation
      • 3.2 The synthetic absolute negators
        • 3.2.1 Clausal negation
        • 3.2.2 Subclausal negation
      • 3.3 The approximate negators
      • 3.4 Affixal negation in relation to verbal negation
    • 4 Polarity-sensitive items
      • 4.1 Negatively-oriented polarity-sensitive items (NPIs)
        • 4.1.1 NPIs vs negative idioms
        • 4.1.2 Variation in the strength of the negative orientation
      • 4.2 Positively-oriented polarity-sensitive items (PPIs)
      • 4.3 Correspondences between PPIs, NPIs, and negators
      • 4.4 Non-affirmative contexts
    • 5 Increased specificity of negation (I don’twant to hear about it)
    • 6 Multiple negation
      • 6.1 Multiple semantic negation within a single clause
      • 6.2 Negative concord and pleonastic negation
    • 7 Positive and negative polarity in responses and anaphora
      • 7.1 Answers to polar questions and comparable responses
      • 7.2 Anaphoric so and not
  • 10 Clause type and illocutionary force
    • 1 Type as a grammatical system of the clause
    • 2 Distinctive grammatical properties of the major clause types
    • 3 Some semantic and pragmatic preliminaries
      • 3.1 Illocutionary force
      • 3.2 Indirect speech acts
    • 4 Kinds of question
      • 4.1 Question as a semantic and as a pragmatic category
      • 4.2 Summary classification of questions
      • 4.3 Polar questions
      • 4.4 Alternative questions
      • 4.5 Variable questions
      • 4.6 Direction questions
      • 4.7 Biased questions
        • 4.7.1 Kinds and degrees of bias
        • 4.7.2 Declarative questions
        • 4.7.3 Negative interrogative questions
        • 4.7.4 Positively- and negatively-oriented polarity-sensitive items (some vs any, etc.)
      • 4.8 Echo questions
        • 4.8.1 The contrast between echo and ordinary questions
        • 4.8.2 The grammatical form of variable echo questions
        • 4.8.3 The form of polar echo questions
        • 4.8.4 Repetition vs clarification echoes
    • 5 Interrogative tags and parentheticals
      • 5.1 The formation of interrogative tags
      • 5.2 The use and interpretation of tags
      • 5.3 Parentheticals
    • 6 The presuppositions of information questions
      • 6.1 Q–A presuppositions of alternative questions
      • 6.2 Q–A presuppositions of polar questions
      • 6.3 Q–A presuppositions of variable questions
      • 6.4 Rejection of Q–A presuppositions
      • 6.5 Cancellation of Q–A presuppositions
      • 6.6 Secondary presuppositions
    • 7 Interrogative words and phrases
      • 7.1 Which
      • 7.2 Whose
      • 7.3 Who and whom
      • 7.4 When
      • 7.5 Where
      • 7.6 Why
      • 7.7 How
      • 7.8 What
      • 7.9 Upward percolation of the interrogative feature: interrogative phrases
      • 7.10 Upward percolation of the question variable: the questioned element
      • 7.11 Open interrogatives as an unbounded dependency construction
      • 7.12 Ambiguities concerning the role of an interrogative phrase in complex clauses
      • 7.13 Modification of interrogative words
      • 7.14 Complex-intransitive interrogatives: S–P–PC vs PC–P–S
    • 8 Exclamatives and exclamations
      • 8.1 The syntax of exclamatives
        • 8.1.1 Exclamative how
        • 8.1.2 Exclamative what
        • 8.1.3 Position of the subject
        • 8.1.4 Verbless exclamatives
      • 8.2 Meaning and use of exclamative main clauses
      • 8.3 Non-exclamative exclamations
    • 9 Imperatives and directives
      • 9.1 Subtypes of imperative clauses
      • 9.2 Ordinary imperatives
        • 9.2.1 Omissibility of the subject
        • 9.2.2 Subject vs vocative in imperatives
        • 9.2.3 Imperatives with auxiliary do
        • 9.2.4 Imperatives as directives
        • 9.2.5 Agentivity in imperatives
      • 9.3 1st person inclusive let-imperatives
        • 9.3.1 Grammatical properties
        • 9.3.2 Use of 1st person inclusive imperatives
      • 9.4 Open let-imperatives
      • 9.5 Imperatives interpreted as conditionals
      • 9.6 Non-imperative directives
        • 9.6.1 Interrogatives as directives
        • 9.6.2 Declaratives as directives
        • 9.6.3 Non-finite and verbless directives
      • 9.7 Imperatives with interrogative tags
      • 9.8 No subordinate imperative construction
    • 10 Minor clause types
  • 11 Content clauses and reported speech
    • 1 Subordinate clauses
    • 2 Clause type
    • 3 Subordinators in content clauses
      • 3.1 Conditions under which that must or may appear
      • 3.2 The syntactic category of subordinator
    • 4 Functions of declarative content clauses
      • 4.1 Subject
      • 4.2 Internal complement in clause structure
      • 4.3 Content clauses in construction with it
        • 4.3.1 It as subject
        • 4.3.2 The complex-transitive construction
        • 4.3.3 Other constructions
      • 4.4 Complement of an adjective
      • 4.5 Complement of a noun or supplement
      • 4.6 Content clauses licensed by so, such, and (in AmE) enough, sufficient(ly)
      • 4.7 Adjunct in clause structure
      • 4.8 Complement of a preposition or adverb
    • 5 Interrogative content clauses
      • 5.1 Form
      • 5.2 Whether vs if
      • 5.3 Survey of constructions containing subordinate interrogatives
        • 5.3.1 As complement or supplement
        • 5.3.2 Question-orientation vs answer-orientation
        • 5.3.3 Dubitatives
        • 5.3.4 On the construction He made I don’t know how many mistakes
        • 5.3.5 Infinitival interrogatives
        • 5.3.6 Interrogatives as adjunct: the ungoverned exhaustive conditional construction
    • 6 Exclamative content clauses
      • 6.1 Exclamatives in relation to open interrogatives
      • 6.2 Distribution of exclamative content clauses
    • 7 Mood, tense, and factivity
      • 7.1 The subjunctive construction and specialised uses of modal auxiliaries
        • 7.1.1 The mandative construction
        • 7.1.2 Content clauses governed by prepositions
        • 7.1.3 Content clauses functioning as exhaustive conditional adjunct
        • 7.1.4 Other specialised modal constructions
      • 7.2 Modal preterites and irrealis mood
      • 7.3 Present tense with future time interpretation
      • 7.4 Factivity
    • 8 Some issues of syntactic analysis
      • 8.1 Subordinators and the traditional category of ‘subordinating conjunctions’
      • 8.2 Content clauses in relation to the traditional classification of subordinate clauses
      • 8.3 Content clauses and the function ‘object’
    • 9 Reported speech
      • 9.1 Indirect reported speech
      • 9.2 Direct reported speech
      • 9.3 Free indirect and direct speech
  • 12 Relative constructions and unbounded dependencies
    • 1 Terminological preliminaries
    • 2 Types of relative construction
      • 2.1 Formal types: wh, that, and bare relatives
      • 2.2 The relational types: integrated, supplementary, cleft, and fused
      • 2.3 Finiteness
    • 3 The form of relative clauses
      • 3.1 Relativisation
      • 3.2 Relative words, relative phrases, and upward percolation
        • 3.2.1 Type i: from complement of preposition to PP (behind which)
        • 3.2.2 Type ii: from PP complement of noun to NP (the result of which)
        • 3.2.3 Type iii: fromPP to AdjP (prominent among which)
        • 3.2.4 Types iv and v: from NP to non-finite (to refute which, passing which)
        • 3.2.5 Type vi: from genitive whose to NP (whose essay)
        • 3.2.6 Type vii: from determinative which to NP (which suggestion)
      • 3.3 What can be relativised
      • 3.4 Relativisation of an element within an embedded clause
      • 3.5 The formal types: wh, that, and bare relatives
        • 3.5.1 Who and which
        • 3.5.2 Whose
        • 3.5.3 Other relative words
        • 3.5.4 The choice between the wh and non-wh constructions
        • 3.5.5 Non-wh relatives: presence or absence of that
        • 3.5.6 That as a subordinator (not a relative pronoun)
    • 4 The distinction between integrated and supplementary relative clauses
      • 4.1 Major syntactic differences
      • 4.2 Meaning and use
      • 4.3 Linear position
    • 5 Infinitival relative clauses
    • 6 The fused relative construction
      • 6.1 Fused relatives as phrases, not clauses
      • 6.2 Fused relatives contrasted with open interrogatives
      • 6.3 Syntactic analysis
      • 6.4 Relative words in the fused construction
    • 7 Unbounded dependency constructions
      • 7.1 Definition and taxonomy
      • 7.2 Gaps and antecedents
      • 7.3 Location of gaps
      • 7.4 Nested dependencies
      • 7.5 Parasitic gaps
  • 13 Comparative constructions
    • 1 Preliminaries
      • 1.1 Two cross-cutting distinctions: scalar vs non-scalar, equality vs inequality
      • 1.2 Term and set comparison
      • 1.3 Comparative complements, comparative governors, and comparative phrases
    • 2 Comparative clauses
      • 2.1 Reduction of comparative clauses
      • 2.2 Than/as + single element (Bob is as generous as Sue )
      • 2.3 Likeness and contrast between comparative clause and matrix
      • 2.4 The comparative phrase
    • 3 Metalinguistic comparison (more apparent than real )
    • 4 Scalar term comparison
      • 4.1 The major governors in comparisons of inequality
      • 4.1.1 More and less : analytic markers vs inflectional forms
      • 4.1.2 Comparative forms of the degree determinatives
      • 4.2 Less central governors in scalar inequality (rather, prefer, superior )
      • 4.3 Scalar comparisons of equality: as, so, such
      • 4.4 Modification
        • 4.4.1 Degree modification
        • 4.4.2 Modification by the
      • 4.5 Comparative idioms and reanalysis
      • 4.6 The correlative comparative construction
    • 5 Non-scalar comparison
      • 5.1 Same
      • 5.2 Similar
      • 5.3 Such
      • 5.4 Different, other, else
      • 5.5 As
      • 5.6 Like
        • 5.6.1 Like + NP complement
        • 5.6.2 Like + finite clause
        • 5.6.3 Other constructions
        • 5.6.4 Unlike
    • 6 Scalar set comparison
      • 6.1 Plain, comparative, and superlative grade
      • 6.2 Comparative grade in set comparison
      • 6.3 Superlatives
        • 6.3.1 Inflectional and analytic superlatives
        • 6.3.2 Non-superlative uses of most
        • 6.3.3 Absolute and relative superlatives
        • 6.3.4 The structure of superlative phrases
  • 14 Non-finite and verbless clauses
    • 1 Preliminaries
      • 1.1 Matters of form and function
      • 1.2 The catenative construction
      • 1.3 To-infinitivals with and without a subject
      • 1.4 The structure of infinitivals
        • 1.4.1 The clause subordinator for
        • 1.4.2 The infinitival subordinator to
        • 1.4.3 Bare infinitivals
      • 1.5 The structure of gerund-participials
      • 1.6 Case of the subject NP in gerund-participials
      • 1.7 Understood subjects
    • 2 The simple catenative construction
      • 2.1 To-infinitivals (I hoped to convince them vs I seemed to convince them)
      • 2.2 Gerund-participials (We enjoyed sailing vs We kept sailing)
      • 2.3 Concealed passives (The house needs painting)
    • 3 The complex catenative construction
      • 3.1 To-infinitivals
        • 3.1.1 The plain-complex construction (I persuaded Liz to go vs I intended Liz to go)
        • 3.1.2 The for-complex construction (I arranged for her to go by bus)
        • 3.1.3 The oblique-complex construction (I signalled to her to move off the road)
      • 3.2 Gerund-participials
        • 3.2.1 Catch vs resent (I caught him doing it vs I resented him doing it)
        • 3.2.2 See (I saw him doing it)
        • 3.2.3 Concealed passives with intervening NP (He needs his hair cutting)
    • 4 The catenative complement as a distinct type of complement
      • 4.1 Non-finites in relation to NP and AdjP complements
      • 4.2 The analysis of auxiliary verbs
        • 4.2.1 The dependent-auxiliary analysis
        • 4.2.2 The catenative-auxiliary analysis
      • 4.3 The traditional distinction between ‘gerunds’ and ‘present participles’
      • 4.4 Catenative complements, adjuncts, and coordinates
    • 5 Classification of catenative verbs
      • 5.1 Framework of classification
      • 5.2 Class 1: catenative verbs appearing only in the simple construction
      • 5.3 Class 2: catenative verbs appearing in both simple and complex constructions
      • 5.4 Class 3: catenative verbs appearing only in the complex construction
      • 5.5 Index to the classification
      • 5.6 Further remarks on the form-types
        • 5.6.1 To-infinitival vs gerund-participial
        • 5.6.2 The minor form-types: bare infinitivals and past-participials
    • 6 Hollow non-finite clauses
      • 6.1 General properties
      • 6.2 Gerund-participials
      • 6.3 Hollow to-infinitivals
    • 7 Non-catenative complements in clause structure
      • 7.1 Subject and extraposed subject
      • 7.2 Object and extraposed object
      • 7.3 Predicative complement
    • 8 Further complement uses of non-finite clauses
      • 8.1 Non-finite complements of adjectives
      • 8.2 Non-finite complements of nouns
      • 8.3 Non-finite complements in the structure of PPs
      • 8.4 Indirect and matrix-licensed non-finite complements
      • 8.5 Interrogative infinitival clauses
    • 9 Non-finite clauses as modifiers and supplements
    • 10 Verbless clauses
    • 11 Further remarks on the interpretation of subjectless non-finites
  • 15 Coordination and supplementation
    • 1 The structure of coordinate constructions
      • 1.1 Coordinations, coordinates, and coordinators
      • 1.2 Layered coordination (Kim and either Pat or Alex)
      • 1.3 Syntactic constituency and semantic scope
        • 1.3.1 Clausal and subclausal coordination
        • 1.3.2 Joint coordination (Kim and Pat are a happy couple)
        • 1.3.3 NPs with discrete set interpretations (new and second-hand books)
        • 1.3.4 Constituent structure and scope ambiguities (long poems and essays)
      • 1.4 Order of coordinates
    • 2 Coordinators and related linking items
      • 2.1 Properties of prototypical coordinators
      • 2.2 And and or
        • 2.2.1 Logical conjunction and disjunction
        • 2.2.2 And and or in combination with negation
        • 2.2.3 Asymmetric constructions, i: and (He got up and had breakfast, etc.)
        • 2.2.4 Asymmetric constructions, ii: or (Hurry up or we’ll be late, etc.)
        • 2.2.5 Coordinator-marked reduplication (louder and louder, dozens and dozens)
      • 2.3 Both and either
      • 2.4 Neither and nor
      • 2.5 But
      • 2.6 Not
      • 2.7 Not only
      • 2.8 Expressions based on comparison (as well as, rather than, etc.)
      • 2.9 Expressions of addition, inclusion, etc. (including, instead of , plus, etc.)
      • 2.10 Connective adverbs (so, yet, however, etc.)
      • 2.11 For, only, and resultative so + that
    • 3 The range of coordination: what can be coordinated with what
      • 3.1 Conditions on the distribution and form of coordinations
      • 3.2 Coordination of unlike categories
      • 3.3 Coordination of grammaticised words
      • 3.4 Coordination and genitives
      • 3.5 Coordination of clause types
      • 3.6 Level of coordination
    • 4 Non-basic coordination
      • 4.1 Expansion of coordinates by modifiers (the guests and indeed his family too)
      • 4.2 Gapped coordination (Kim is an engineer and Pat a barrister)
      • 4.3 Right nonce-constituent coordination (I gave $10 to Kim and $5 to Pat)
      • 4.4 Delayed right constituent coordination (knew of but never mentioned my work)
      • 4.5 End-attachment coordination (They had found Kim guilty, but not Pat)
      • 4.6 Coordination as evidence for constituent structure
    • 5 Supplementation
      • 5.1 General properties of supplementation
      • 5.2 The form of supplements
  • 16 Information packaging
    • 1 Syntactic overview
    • 2 Information packaging: concepts and general principles
    • 3 Complement preposing
      • 3.1 Non-focus complement preposing
      • 3.2 Proposition assessment
      • 3.3 Focus complement preposing
    • 4 Postposing
    • 5 Subject–dependent inversion
      • 5.1 Syntactic issues
      • 5.2 Pragmatic constraints on inversion
      • 5.3 Clauses with the form ‘Here/There + verb + NP’
    • 6 Existential and presentational clauses
      • 6.1 Syntactic preliminaries
      • 6.2 The existential construction
        • 6.2.1 Survey of structures
        • 6.2.2 Pragmatic constraints
      • 6.3 The presentational construction
    • 7 Extraposition
      • 7.1 The central case: extraposition from subject of content and infinitival clauses
      • 7.2 Further cases of extraposition
    • 8 Dislocation
      • 8.1 Left dislocation
      • 8.2 Right dislocation
      • 8.3 Extensions and contrasting constructions
    • 9 Clefts
      • 9.1 General properties of clefts
      • 9.2 The form of it-clefts
      • 9.3 The form of pseudo-clefts
      • 9.4 Issues of information packaging: discourse status of the presupposition
        • 9.4.1 Two types of it-cleft: old presupposition vs new presupposition
        • 9.4.2 Pseudo-clefts in comparison with it-clefts
    • 10 Passive voice
      • 10.1 Syntax of the passive
        • 10.1.1 Structural differences between active and passive clauses
        • 10.1.2 Complements externalised from the passive VP
        • 10.1.3 Adjectival passives
        • 10.1.4 Get-passives
      • 10.2 Pragmatic factors favouring actives or passives
  • 17 Deixis and anaphora
    • 1 Preliminaries
      • 1.1 The concept of deixis
      • 1.2 Anaphora: anaphors and antecedents
      • 1.3 The relationship between an anaphor and its antecedent
      • 1.4 Pro-forms
    • 2 The personal pronouns
      • 2.1 3rd person as the default category
      • 2.2 1st and 2nd person
        • 2.2.1 Primary uses
        • 2.2.2 Secondary uses
      • 2.3 3rd person
        • 2.3.1 Anaphoric and non-anaphoric uses
        • 2.3.2 Semantic relations between pronoun and its antecedent
      • 2.4 Order of anaphor and antecedent
        • 2.4.1 Central cases of anticipatory anaphora
        • 2.4.2 Further cases of anticipatory anaphora
      • 2.5 Special uses of it
    • 3 Reflexive pronouns
      • 3.1 Reflexive pronouns in complement function
        • 3.1.1 Basic reflexives in verb domains
        • 3.1.2 Basic reflexives in noun domains
        • 3.1.3 Basic reflexives in dual-head domains
        • 3.1.4 Override reflexives
      • 3.2 The emphatic use of reflexive pronouns
    • 4 Reciprocals
      • 4.1 Form and meaning
      • 4.2 The distribution of reciprocal pronouns
    • 5 Demonstratives
      • 5.1 Preliminaries
      • 5.2 The central deictic use
      • 5.3 Anaphoric uses
      • 5.4 Other uses of the demonstratives
    • 6 Other types of reducedNP: pro-nominals, fused heads, and ellipsis
      • 6.1 Pro-nominal one and the fused-head construction
      • 6.2 Pro-nominal other
    • 7 Reduced VPs and clauses, and related constructions
      • 7.1 Stranding of auxiliary verbs
      • 7.2 Do: supportive auxiliary or lexical pro-form
      • 7.3 Reduction of VPs with infinitival to
      • 7.4 Ellipsis of complement of lexical verbs and adjectives
      • 7.5 Do so
      • 7.6 Do it, do that, etc.
      • 7.7 So
        • 7.7.1 Deictic so
        • 7.7.2 Anaphoric so
        • 7.7.3 Other uses of so
      • 7.8 Further cases of ellipsis
        • 7.8.1 Ellipsis of grammaticised words at the beginning of a main clause
        • 7.8.2 Radical ellipsis in open interrogatives
        • 7.8.3 Radical ellipsis in declarative responses
        • 7.8.4 Gapping
    • 8 Comparatives
    • 9 Spatial location and change of location
      • 9.1 Here and there
      • 9.2 Come and go
      • 9.3 Further cases of deictic and anaphoric interpretations of spatial expressions
      • 9.4 Location of antecedents and referents in the discourse
    • 10 Temporal deixis and anaphora
      • 10.1 Basic uses
        • 10.1.1 Now and then
        • 10.1.2 Other temporal expressions
      • 10.2 Shift of deictic centre
  • 18 Inflectional morphology and related matters
    • 1 Preliminaries
      • 1.1 Lexical base, morphological operations, and alternation
      • 1.2 Overview of inflectional categories
      • 1.3 Speech and writing
    • 2 General phonological and spelling alternations
      • 2.1 Phonological alternations
        • 2.1.1 The sibilant suffixes: /iz/ ~ /s/ ~ /z/
        • 2.1.2 The alveolar plosive suffix of the preterite and past participle: /id/ ~ /t/ ~ /d/
        • 2.1.3 Bases ending in syllabic /l/ (/ h mbl/ ~ / h mbli./)
        • 2.1.4 Bases ending in post-vocalic /r/: alternation in non-rhotic accents (/re.r/ ~ /re.r./)
      • 2.2 Spelling alternations
        • 2.2.1 Consonant doubling (bat ~ batt·ing)
        • 2.2.2 E-deletion (like ~ lik·ing, subdue ~ subdu·ing)
        • 2.2.3 Y-replacement (silly ~ silli·er, try ~ trie·s)
        • 2.2.4 Alternation between ·s and ·es in the plural and 3rd sg present tense
    • 3 Grade
      • 3.1 Inflectional comparative and superlative forms
      • 3.2 Inflectional vs analytic comparatives and superlatives
    • 4 Nouns
      • 4.1 Plural formation
        • 4.1.1 Regular ·s plurals (cats, dogs, horses)
        • 4.1.2 Irregular ·s plurals: modification of the base (wives, mouths, houses)
        • 4.1.3 Base plurals (cod, bison, series, Chinese, craft)
        • 4.1.4 The vowel change plurals (teeth, mice, men)
        • 4.1.5 The ·en plurals (oxen, children, brethren)
        • 4.1.6 Foreign plurals ( formulae, curricula, phenomena, crises)
        • 4.1.7 Compound nouns (grown-ups, commanders-in-chief )
        • 4.1.8 Proper nouns (Joneses, Marys)
      • 4.2 The genitive
    • 5 Verbs
      • 5.1 Regular forms
      • 5.2 Irregular present tense forms
      • 5.3 Irregular preterite and past participle forms
        • 5.3.1 Class 1 verbs: secondary ·ed formation (burn, keep, hit, lose)
        • 5.3.2 Class 2 verbs: vowel alternations (drink, dig, find, come)
        • 5.3.3 Class 3 verbs: past participles formed with the ·en suffix (see, ride, take)
        • 5.3.4 Class 4 verbs: other formations ( flee, hear, stand, buy, can)
        • 5.3.5 Index to the classification
      • 5.4 Verbs with complex bases (underpin, become)
      • 5.5 Negative forms of auxiliaries
    • 6 Phonological reduction and liaison
      • 6.1 Weak forms
      • 6.2 Clitic versions of auxiliary verbs
      • 6.3 Incorporation of the infinitival marker to
      • 6.4 Liaison
  • 19 Lexical word-formation
    • 1 Preliminaries
      • 1.1 Established words and potential words
      • 1.2 Morphological structure
      • 1.3 Productivity and lexicalisation
      • 1.4 Introduction to the description
    • 2 Minor word-formation processes
      • 2.1 Manufacture
      • 2.2 Initialism
      • 2.3 Clipping
      • 2.3.1 Plain clippings
      • 2.3.2 Embellished clippings
      • 2.4 Blending
      • 2.5 Back-formation
      • 2.6 Phonological modification
    • 3 Conversion
      • 3.1 The domain of conversion
      • 3.2 Conversion between nouns and verbs
      • 3.3 Conversion between adjectives and nouns
      • 3.4 Conversion between adjectives and verbs
    • 4 Compounds
      • 4.1 Preliminaries
      • 4.2 Compound nouns
        • 4.2.1 Noun-centred compound nouns
        • 4.2.2 Verb-centred compound nouns
      • 4.3 Compound adjectives
        • 4.3.1 Adjective-centred compound adjectives
        • 4.3.2 Verb-centred compound adjectives
        • 4.3.3 Other forms
      • 4.4 Compound verbs
      • 4.5 Neo-classical compounds
      • 4.6 Phonologically motivated compounds
    • 5 The core of English lexical word-formation: mainly derivation
      • 5.1 Affixation and derivation: formal issues
        • 5.1.1 Kinds and combinations of affixes
        • 5.1.2 Morphophonological alternation
        • 5.1.3 Class I and Class II affixes
        • 5.1.4 Paradigmatic relations and affix-replacement
        • 5.1.5 Spelling alternations
      • 5.2 Evaluative morphology
        • 5.2.1 Diminutives
        • 5.2.2 Augmentatives
      • 5.3 Gender-marking morphology
      • 5.4 Location in space and time
      • 5.5 Negatives and reversatives
        • 5.5.1 Negation
        • 5.5.2 Reversal
        • 5.5.3 Removal
        • 5.5.4 Opposition
      • 5.6 Words based on proper names
        • 5.6.1 Adjective and noun derivatives
        • 5.6.2 Derivatives from the names of countries, continents, etc.
      • 5.7 Nominalisations
        • 5.7.1 Person/instrument nominalisations
        • 5.7.2 Action/state/process nominalisations
      • 5.8 Adjectivalisation
      • 5.9 Verbalisation
      • 5.10 Numerals
        • 5.10.1 Cardinal numerals
        • 5.10.2 Ordinal numerals, fractions, and dates
        • 5.10.3 Words incorporating numerical elements
  • 20 Punctuation
    • 1 Preliminaries
      • 1.1 The domain of punctuation
      • 1.2 Indicators and characters
      • 1.3 The status of punctuation rules
      • 1.4 Units of syntax and units of writing
      • 1.5 Functions and classification of punctuation indicators
    • 2 Primary terminals
    • 3 The secondary boundary marks: comma, semicolon, and colon
      • 3.1 Some formal preliminaries
      • 3.2 Uses of the secondary boundary marks
        • 3.2.1 Coordination, syndetic or subclausal
        • 3.2.2 Supplementation, syndetic and subclausal
        • 3.2.3 Asyndetic combinations of main clauses
        • 3.2.4 Further cases of simple boundary marking at the subclausal level
        • 3.2.5 Delimiting commas
    • 4 Parentheses
    • 5 The dash
    • 6 Quotation marks and related indicators
    • 7 Capitalisation
    • 8 Word-level punctuation
      • 8.1 Word boundaries
      • 8.2 Hyphens
        • 8.2.1 Some initial distinctions
        • 8.2.2 Hard and long hyphens
      • 8.3 The apostrophe
      • 8.4 The abbreviation full stop and minor reduction markers
      • 8.5 The slash
  • Further reading
  • Index
  • Lexical index
  • Conceptual index
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