Definitions
(F) = Dictionnaire universel de Furetière
(AF) = Dictionnaire de l’Académie française
(L) = Dictionnaire Larousse
Quand il n’y a pas d’attribution, la définition n’est pas tirée d’un des dictionnaires et il s’agit d’une définition formulée par les auteurs de la présente édition.
- LIBRAIRE
- Celui qui fait métier de vendre des livres, et d’en imprimer ou faire imprimer.
- MAGNIFICENCE
- Qualité de ce qui est magnifique ; somptuosité, splendeur, dépense éclatante ; une vertu particulièrement associée aux grands, aux Rois.
- GALANTERIE
- Les devoirs, les respects, les services qui caractérisent les bonnes relations entre les hommes et les dames ; relations de civilité, de politesse, de sociabilité, de bonne compagnie, de conversation agréable. Signifie aussi commerce amoureux.
- ÉCLAT
- Lueur brillante, effet de la lumière. Signifie figurément gloire, splendeur, magnificence.
- TÉMOIGNAGES
- Preuves ou marques ; démonstrations ; rapports ou récits.
- ÉCLATANT
- Qualité d’une manifestation soudaine, vive, brusque ; Qualité de ce qui s’impose à l’admiration ; splendide, magnifique.
- COURSE DE BAGUES
- Un exercice que font les gentilshommes pour montrer leur adresse avec une lance : en courant à toute bride ils emportent une bague suspendue au milieu de la piste à un poteau. (F)
- CHIFFRES
- L’arrangement de deux ou plusieurs lettres capitales enlacées.
- AJUSTEMENTS
- Habillements qui servent à parer, à orner.
- ATTACHEMENT
- Liaison, engagement, soit d’affection, soit d’intérêt. (AF)
- COMMERCE
- Communication, correspondance et échanges entre des personnes ; rapports, intelligence, amitié, fréquentation : commerce de galanterie.
- L’HEURE DU CERCLE
- La Compagnie des Princesses & des Duchesses assises en rond à droite et à gauche de la Reine. La Reine tient le cercle aujourd’hui. Cette Duchesse est assise au cercle. Il se prend aussi pour le lieu où cette Compagnie est assemblée. Aller au cercle. On le voit tous les jours au cercle. (AF)
- ESPRIT
- Disposition, raisonnement, humeur, jugement, imagination, intelligence.
- POLITESSE
- Une certaine manière de vivre, d’agir, de parler, civile, honnête et polie, acquise par l’usage du monde ; conduite agréable et civile en société.
- ÉMULATION
- Noble jalousie entre les gens de savoir ou de vertu, qui les fait disputer à qui acquerra le plus de gloire. L’émulation est souvent cause des grandes actions. (F)
- VALEUR
- Bravoure, vaillance, vertu qui consiste à combattre courageusement.
- SCIENCE
- Connaissance des choses, acquise par une grande lecture, ou une longue méditation. (F)
- DÉLICES
- Chose agréable qui donne du plaisir aux sens, ou à l’esprit.
- GLOIRE
- Honneur, louange, estime, réputation qui procède du mérite d’une personne, de l’excellence de ses actions ou de ses ouvrages. (AF)
- MAISON
- Se prend aussi pour tous ceux qui sont d’une même famille. Ne se dit que des familles nobles et illustres. Maison noble.
- HARDI
- Brave, courageux, vaillant. Se dit quelque fois des gens téméraires.
- MONDE
- La société des hommes dans laquelle on a à vivre, ou pour une partie de cette société. Fréquenter le grand monde, le beau monde, aimer le monde, le commerce du monde. (AF)
- ENJOUEMENT
- Disposition à une gaieté aimable, à la bonne humeur ; entrain.
- AIR
- Manière, façon d’être ; manière de parler, d’agir, de se comporter ; la mine, les traits du visage.
- DOUCEUR
- Façon d’agir douce et éloignée de toute sorte de violence. Conter des douceurs à une femme, la cajoler, lui dire quelque douceur, la flatter comme si l’on était amoureux d’elle. (AF)
- ESTIME
- Le cas, l’état qu’on fait d’une personne, ou de son mérite, de sa vertu. (AF)
- CRÉDIT
- Croyance, estime qu’on s’acquiert dans le public par sa vertu, sa probité, sa bonne foi, et son mérite.
- FAVEUR
- Bonnes grâces, bienfait, marque d’amitié, de bienveillance d’un supérieur, d’un prince.
- PARTI
- Groupe de personnes réunies contre d’autres par un même intérêt ou mêmes opinions.
- ÉLÉVATION
- Augmentation de statut, de grandeur, monter plus haut ; noblesse de sentiments, courage.
- LIAISONS
- Il se dit de l’attachement et de l’union qui est entre des personnes particulières, ou entre des états et communautés, soit par amitié, soit par intérêt. (AF)
- DESSEIN
- Résolution de faire quelque chose, intention, but, projet, prétention.
- CONDUITE
- Action par laquelle on mène, dirige, guide une personne ou une affaire. Heureuse, malheureuse, sage, bonne, mauvaise conduite. Cette femme est d’une bonne conduite, d’une conduite fort réglée, sans conduite. (AF)
- ENTREVUE
- Visite, rencontre concertée entre deux ou plusieurs personnes pour se voir, pour parler d’affaires. (AF)
- AGRÉMENTS
- Approbation, consentement. Qualité par laquelle on plait.
- PRÉSAGE
- Signe, bon ou mauvais, par lequel on juge de l’avenir. Conjecture qu’on tire d’un signe. (AF)
- INCLINATION(S)
- Mouvement spontané qui porte une personne vers une autre, inspiré par la sympathie, l’affection, l’amitié, l’amour. (L)
- BIENSÉANCE
- Ce qui convient. Convenance de ce qui se dit, de ce qui se fait par rapport aux personnes, à l’âge, au sexe, aux temps, aux lieux. (AF)
- AGITATION
- Ébranlement, secouement. Agitation du vaisseau, du cheval, du carrosse. Il se dit aussi figurément des troubles et des passions. Une grande agitation dans l’esprit, l’amour, la haine, le désir, la crainte sont de différentes agitations de l’âme. (AF)
- SEIGNEUR
- Qui a une terre, un fief qui lui donne de l’autorité sur des sujets, sur des vassaux. (AF)
- ASSEMBLÉE
- Réunion d’un nombre, d’une multitude de personnes pour une même chose ; se dit parfois d’un bal ; se retrouve en groupe dans un endroit commun. (AF)
- RECONNAISSANCE
- Gratitude, souvenir des bienfaits reçus. Signifie aussi récompense pour un bon office ou de grands services. Peut aussi signifier un aveu, confession d’une faute. (AF)
- TROUBLE
- Émotion de l’amour, désordre, inquiétude, trouble de l’esprit.
- ÉQUIPAGE
- Train, suite, chevaux, carrosse, valets : tout ce qui est nécessaire pour voyager avec faste. (L)
- TENDRESSE
- Sensibilité du cœur et de l’âme. La délicatesse du siècle a renfermé ce mot dans l’amour et l’amitié. Les amants ne parlent que de tendresse de cœur, soit en prose, soit en vers ; et même ce mot signifie le plus souvent amour; et quand on dit, « J’ai de la tendresse pour vous » c’est à dire, « j’ai beaucoup d’amour ». (F)
- RÉPUTATION
- Bonne ou mauvaise opinion qu’on peut avoir des gens ou des choses. Il ne faut qu’une victoire pour mettre un Capitaine en réputation, une déroute pour le ruiner de réputation. Une femme n’a rien de plus cher que sa réputation, il ne faut pas blesser, ni ternir sa réputation. (F)
- CHARGE
- Office dont on tire des bénéfices, revenus : charge dans l’armée, dans la maison du Roi, dans la judicature.
- DISGRACIÉ
- Éloigner quelqu’un de sa présence, lui ôter la faveur, la protection qu’on lui donnait. Un favori qui est disgracié perd tous ses flatteurs et la plupart de ses amis. (F)
- SOIN
- Sollicitude, peine d’esprit ; diligence à faire réussir une chose, à la garder et à la conserver, à la perfectionner ; l’attache particulière qu’on a auprès d’un maître, ou d’une maîtresse, pour les servir, ou leur plaire.
- DIVERTISSEMENT
- Réjouissance, plaisir, récréation. On gagne les femmes en leur donnant toute sorte de divertissement. (F)
- CHAGRIN
- Inquiétude, ennui, mélancolie. (F)
- AFFLICTION
- Peine du corps ou de l’esprit. (F)
- PÉRIL
- Danger, ce qui menace ruine. (F)
- RETRAITE
- Se retirer du monde, de la Cour, des affaires. Quitter la société. (AF)
- BROUILLERIE
- Division, mécontentement. Il y a quelques brouilleries à la Cour qui n’éclatent point encore. (F)
- VISIONNAIRE
- Qui est sujet à des visions, à des extravagances, à de mauvais raisonnements. (F)
- INDIFFÉRENCE
- Se dit de la disposition de l’esprit de celui qui n’a point d’amitié, qui ne veut prendre aucun parti, ni faire aucun choix. L’indifférence est en amour plus dangereuse que la haine. (F)
- VRAISEMBLABLE
- Ce qui paraît vrai, semble être vrai. (AF)
- ORGUEIL
- Fierté, arrogance, superbe, sotte gloire et présomption, le premier des sept péchés capitaux. La grandeur inspire un noble orgueil qui empêche de faire des bassesses. (F)
- BONTÉ
- L’excellence ou la perfection de quelque chose. Inclination à faire du bien, douceur, clémence. (AF)
- TOURNOI
- Autrefois une fête militaire et publique, une assemblée convoquée où il y avait un grand concours de princes, de seigneurs, et de chevaliers qui s’exerçait à plusieurs sortes de combats, soit à cheval, soit à pied. (AF)
- LICE
- Lieu long et étroit préparé pour les courses de bague, de lance, tournois, combats à la barrière, et autres pareils exercices. (AF)
- ÉCU
- Espèce de bouclier sur lequel se peignent les armes. (AF)
- LÉGÈRETÉ
- Se dit figurément en morale pour dire faiblesse d’esprit, inconstance, défaut de solidité: légèreté d’une promesse, d’un serment; mais aussi agile, souple, fin. (F)
- ÉCLAIRCISSEMENT
- Explication d’une chose obscure. Éclaircissement d’un doute, d’une difficulté. En matière de querelle, une explication que l’on demande pour savoir si on a dit ou fait telle chose avec l’intention d’offenser. Tirer un éclaircissement. Faire un éclaircissement. (AF)
- LANGUEUR
- Diminution des forces, de santé, causée par une maladie lente, et souvent mortelle. Se dit aussi en Morale des tristesses, des afflictions, ou des passions violentes qui nous privent de joie, ou de santé. (F)
French Version Notes
- 1n
- The novel is divided into four parts; each one was published in a separate tome.
- 2n
- The title of “Dauphin” is given to the eldest son of the royal family, who is destined to inherit the Crown of France. Here, the term “Dauphin” refers to Henri II’s eldest brother, François de Valois, who was supposed to succeed his father, François I, on the throne. After his premature death, Henri II became the Dauphin (7). In the narrative that describes Henri II’s reign, the Dauphin refers to François II, the eldest son of Henri II (see 5 and 8).
- 3n
- In French, the expression “chez la Reine” means “in the queen’s apartments”; the preposition “chez” designates a place where a person lives, their home. The novel repeatedly refers to locations using “chez”: “chez la Reine,” “chez la Reine Dauphine,” etc., to designate the private apartments of the characters in question.
- 4n
- Marie Stuart is known as the “Reine Dauphine” (also called madame la dauphine in the novel) because she is the wife of François II, son of the King Henri II. François II is the Dauphin of France.
- 5n
- See footnote no. 4.
- 6n
- The reference here is to the Guise brothers: specifically, the Duc de Guise and the Cardinal de Lorraine.
- 7n
- Charles IX, king of France from 1560-74. He inherits the throne of France after the premature death of his brother François II.
- 8n
- The “Empire” refers to the Holy Roman Empire, ruled at that time by Charles V.
- 9n
- The negotiations of the treaties of Cateau-Cambrésis to put an end to the Italian wars began in the abbey of Cercamp, located 115 miles north of Paris. See the interactive map to locate this historical site.
- 10n
- The reference here is to Charles III, Duc de Lorraine, and his wife Claude de France (second daughter of Henri II and Catherine de Médicis).
- 11n
- Fictional character.
- 12n
- The reference is to the Vidame de Chartres, her uncle.
- 13n
- Fictional character.
- 14n
- Catholic Pope from 1534-49. In 1537, he published an epistle condemning the enslavement of indigenous populations (the “Indians”).
- 15n
- The reference is to the King’s sister, “Madame, sister to the King.”
- 16n
- The expression “feu Roi” refers to King François I, deceased for a number of years at this point (hence the adjective “feu”).
- 17n
- “Les Reines” refers to Queen Catherine de Médicis and the Dauphine.
- 18n
- Until the French Revolution, the Louvre is one of the main residences of the King and his court. See the interactive map to locate this site.
- 19n
- After the death of the Duc de Nevers (31), the reference to the Duc de Nevers now designates the eldest son of the family who has inherited his father’s title of nobility; the oldest brother of the Prince de Clèves, the Duc de Nevers, is Madame de Clèves’s brother-in-law, as noted shortly afterwards.
- 20n
- Louis XI, King of France from 1461 to 1483.
- 21n
- The King François I.
- 22n
- The reference is to Louise de Savoie (1476-1531), mother of François I. She is called “Mademoiselle la Régente” in the novel because in this period of her life she is a widow and regent—she governed the Kingdom of France in 1525-26 while King François I was held prisoner after his defeat in Pavia until the signature of the treaties of Madrid (cf. the Wars of Italy).
- 23n
- The reference is to the eldest son of François I, François de Valois, who died young.
- 24n
- In this retrospective narration, “le Dauphin” refers to Henri II (second son of François I, who inherits that title after the early death of his older brother); “le Roi” designates François I; the Duc d’Orléans refers to the third son of François I, Charles II de Valois, also known as Charles d’Orléans.
- 25n
- The emperor Charles V.
- 26n
- Here “le Roi Dauphin” designates François II, son of Henri II, and “la Reine” (the Queen) designates Marie Stuart, wife of François II.
- 27n
- It was in the town of Cateau-Cambrésis that the representatives of the sovereigns of France, England, and Spain gathered in 1559 to put an end to the last war in Italy. See the interactive map to locate this site.
- 28n
- The country house of the Prince and the Princesse de Clèves is located in Coulommiers (approximately 37 miles from Paris.)
- 29n
- Fictional character.
- 30n
- Fictional character.
- 31n
- Fictional character.
- 32n
- Fictional character.
- 33n
- Fictional character.
- 34n
- Fictional character.
- 35n
- The feminine singular of the word “amour” is an archaic form.
- 36n
- Fictional character.
- 37n
- Fictional character.
- 38n
- “Madame la Dauphine” refers to Marie Stuart; see footnote no. 4.
- 39n
- The “Reine Marie” refers to Mary I, Queen of England, also known as Marie Tudor.
- 40n
- Elizabeth I, Queen of England.
- 41n
- “Monsieur le Dauphin” refers to François II, married to Marie Stuart.
- 42n
- The reference is to the Vidame de Chartres.
- 43n
- “Madame” here refers to Élisabeth de France, elder daughter of King Henri II and Catherine de Médicis. Later in this paragraph, “Madame, sœur du Roi” refers to Marguerite de France, King Henri II’s sister.
- 44n
- In the Project Gutenberg version, the syntax is “le Roi en elle trouvera.” We have corrected it, following the handwritten correction on certain copies of the 1678 first edition.
- 45n
- See footnote no. 17.
- 46n
- In the Project Gutenberg version, the syntax is “occupée de ce qui se venait de passer.” We have corrected it, following the handwritten correction on certain copies of the 1678 first edition.
- 47n
- Correction to Project Gutenberg, where the syntax is “une passion grande,” following the handwritten correction on certain copies of the 1678 first edition.
- 48n
- See footnote no. 17.
- 49n
- Catherine de Médicis.
- 50n
- Allusion to Nostradamus, a well-known French astrologer.
- 51n
- See paragraph 9.
- 52n
- See paragraph 9.
- 53n
- Louis XII, King of France from 1498-1515.
- 54n
- The expression “feu Roi” refers to King François I, deceased for a number of years at this point (hence the adjective “feu”). His wife was Claude de France, designated as “la Reine Claude” at the end of the sentence.
- 55n
- Marguerite d’Angoulême, François I’s sister, also known as Marguerite de Navarre.
- 56n
- Wife of Henri VIII and mother of Marie Tudor.
- 57n
- Martin Luther (1483-1546), who played a key role in the Protestant Reformation.
- 58n
- Jeanne Seimer (Jane Seymour) was the maid of honor to Anne Boleyn and the third wife of Henry VIII.
- 59n
- Catherine Howard was the fifth wife of Henry VIII.
- 60n
- The Chevalier de Guise belongs to a Catholic military order that had controlled the Mediterranean island of Rhodes before that island was conquered by the Ottoman Turks in the sixteenth century. Thus the dream of “capturing Rhodes” expresses an idea of a heroic Christian crusade that will give the Chevalier great military acclaim and compensate for his romantic disappointment. Ironically, the real Chevalier died after a different kind of religious war—the battle of Dreux (1562) between French Protestants and Catholics.
- 61n
- Note Lafayette’s very modern use of free indirect discourse.
- 62n
- Marie Stuart, wife of the future King François II.
- 63n
- The reference is to the Vidame de Chartres.
- 64n
- Note this important psychological moment when the narrator conveys what the Princesse is thinking. Rather than describing her from the outside, readers learn what she is saying to herself. We have chosen to keep the quotation marks to underscore the emphasis placed on the heroine speaking to herself.
- 65n
- “Madame” refers to Élisabeth de France, elder daughter of King Henri II and Catherine de Médicis, on the verge of marrying the King of Spain, Philip II.
- 66n
- Correction to Project Gutenberg, where the verb is “mènerait,” following the handwritten correction on certain copies of the 1678 first edition.
- 67n
- “Madame” refers to Élisabeth de France, elder daughter of King Henri II and Catherine de Médicis. The Duc d’Albe is sent by the King of Spain, Philip II, to stand in for him on the occasion of their wedding ceremony in France.
- 68n
- Note Lafayette’s very modern use of free indirect discourse.
- 69n
- Quotation marks added to signal that the Princesse, once again, is addressing herself.
- 70n
- Note the parallel between Nemours addressing himself, following similar psychological turmoil and personal questioning as the Princesse. Instructors may ask students to look at these passages side by side and comment on the interrogative mode of these passages and the varying personal dilemmas the characters bemoan.
- 71n
- Élisabeth de France, elder daughter of King Henri II and Catherine de Médicis.
- 72n
- One of the rare mentions of the Princesse’s physical traits—her blond hair.
- 73n
- We remember that Diane de Poitiers was described in part I, paragraph 6 as governing Henri II with an “empire si absolu.” In both cases, the monarch is not the sole source of power in his court.
- 74n
- The expression “feu Roi” refers to King Henri II who has just died in a tournament.
- 75n
- Just as the Princesse took transformative personal action, now the Court is in (political) transformation.
- 76n
- François II, who is succeeding Henri II.
- 77n
- Catherine de Médicis, mother of the reigning monarch François II, now a widow.
- 78n
- This is a correction to the Project Gutenberg edition, where Madame de Nevers and Madame de Martigues say that they are coming from “chez Monsieur de Clèves.” We are following the handwritten correction which appears on certain copies of the 1678 first edition. The correction says that the two women are coming from “chez Madame de Clèves,” which makes more sense, given the context and what they report.
- 79n
- The city of Metz is the location of an important military siege that led the French to defeat Emperor Charles V’s imperial army. See the mention of the Siege of Metz towards the end of paragraph 7.
- 80n
- Note that in this case, with the “peut-être” the narrator declines to say for certain what is going through the Princesse’s mind. Is it that she herself is not sure of the reason she had the painting copied or is the narrator refraining from judging or condemning her by only suggesting the motivations behind her actions?
- 81n
- Note the free indirect discourse used here to convey Nemours’s emotions.
- 82n
- The pronoun “en” here is an addition to the Project Gutenberg edition, following the handwritten correction on certain copies of the 1678 first edition.
- 83n
- Note the psychological turmoil underscored by Nemours speaking to himself, full of emotion with overtones evocative of seventeenth-century tragic theater.
- 84n
- This is another example of the narrator suggesting an interpretation for the Princesse’s actions but not going so far as to define her thoughts precisely.
- 85n
- Note the psychological turmoil underscored by Nemours speaking to himself.
- 86n
- Élisabeth de France, elder daughter of King Henri II and Catherine de Médicis, who married the King of Spain with the duc d'Albe acting as the intermediary (see 213, 344, and 397).
- 87n
- Correction to Project Gutenberg, where this sentence is written “on n’a à,” based on the handwritten correction to certain copies of the 1678 first edition.
- 88n
- The “La Reine d’Espagne” (queen of Spain) refers to Élisabeth de France, elder daughter of King Henri II and Catherine de Médicis, whose marriage to the King of Spain has now led her to a new title and foreign identity (see 213, 344, and 397).
- 89n
- Correction to Project Gutenberg, where the verb appears as “reproché,” based on the handwritten correction to certain copies of the 1678 first edition.
Translator’s Notes
- 1t
- This is a translation of the front page of the novel, exactly as it appeared in 1678. Books were typically sold unbound, so that the buyer could have their own cover placed on it. The size of the 1678 edition of the novel was duodecimo, or “in-12,” roughly the size of a small paperback novel today.
- 2t
- The novel is divided into four parts, and each of them was published in a separate volume, indicated on the cover page as Tome I, Tome II, Tome III, and Tome IV, respectively. However, with the third and fourth volumes of the 1678 edition, the terms “Troisième Partie” (Part 3), and “Quatrième Partie” (Part 4) appear. These are the terms we use in this edition, adding the terms “Première Partie” (Part 1) and “Deuxième Partie” (Part 2) to the first two sections. The French literary scholar Jean Mesnard believes that the division of the work into four parts was not done by Lafayette, but rather was the work of the publisher to have four volumes of equal page length. See Mesnard’s commentary “Le texte et son édition” in La Princesse de Clèves (Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1980), 76.
- 3t
- The Palais, located on the île de la Cité in Paris, was originally a royal palace but by the seventeenth century was the site for royal courts, including the Parlement de Paris. In front of the courts was a bustling merchant area, where goods such as books, ribbons, and fashion accessories could be purchased. The publisher Claude Barbin indicates here the physical location of his shop, using the famous cathedral of the Sainte-Chapelle as a point of reference for finding his wares.
- 4t
- In seventeenth-century France, the “libraire” was the person responsible for a book’s entire production, including obtaining the royal privilège or approval for publishing a manuscript, printing the work, and then distributing it to buyers.
- 5t
- The French “histoire” means both an account of past events and a more imaginative rendering of those events according to rules of plausibility. Lafayette once said in a letter that La Princesse de Clèves should more appropriately be considered “des Mémoires” (personal memoirs) than a novel. See her letter to Joseph-Marie de Lescheraine, April 13, 1678. For more about the term “histoire,” see the discussion in “Five Keywords.”
- 6t
- The masculine pronoun is governed by the fact that the noun “auteur” is masculine. The Furetière dictionary of the period recognizes that women are also authors (“On dit aussi d’une femme, qu’elle s’est érigée en Auteur, quand elle a fait quelque livre ou pièce de théâtre”—“A woman is also called an Author when she has written a book or a theatrical play”).
- 7t
- Only the Cave and Perry-Lyons translations provide this “publisher’s note,” which originally appeared at the start of Lafayette’s work, just after the title page. Cave uses “story” for “histoire,” though Perry-Lyons uses “history.” For “ouvrages,” Cave uses “literary works,” though the modern sense of literature is absent at this time; Perry-Lyons uses “books.”
- 8t
- The opening sentence of the novel, by its syntax, emphasizes the terms “magnificence” and “galanterie”—something that translators miss when they choose to begin the sentence in English with a different element (such as “Never has France seen…”). Indeed, the entire novel could be called an exploration of “la galanterie” in its many different meanings. Translators have rendered the term here as “refinement” (Buss), “manners” (Cave), and “gallantry” (Ashton; Perry-Lyons; Mitford). I use several terms throughout the translation, though here, the broad and all-encompassing “gallantry” seems most appropriate.
- 9t
- The word “galant” here has been rendered as “urbane” (Ashton), “courteous” (Buss), “chivalrous” (Cave) and “gallant” (Perry-Lyons).
- 10t
- A remarkably difficult sentence to translate, due to Lafayette’s verbal economy and the ambiguous referent for “la sienne,” which is the Duchesse de Valentinois. The verb “autoriser” has been rendered as “sanction” (Cave), “permit” (Perry-Lyons), “warrant” (Buss and Mitford), and “justify” (Ashton).
- 11t
- The descriptions of the court pose a challenge to the translator, in order to render both the precision of Lafayette’s language while also respecting the aristocratic code of understatement and periphrasis. It would be going too far to render the Prince de Condé’s “petit corps peu favorisé par la nature” as a “stunted body” (Cave) or “small crooked body” (Mitford). But a term such as “enjouement” evokes a variety of terms in English: “light-hearted manner” (Cave), “spirited temperament” (Buss), “gaiety” (Ashton), and “playfulness” (Perry-Lyons).
- 12t
- To translate “grands seigneurs” as “great nobles” might obscure, to the English reader, that this is going to be a list of men exclusively. Thus when the Duchesse de Valentinois is named at the end of the paragraph, Lafayette emphasizes how much these august gentlemen are dependent on a woman’s influence.
- 13t
- Cave cautions that the word “maîtresse,” if translated as “mistress,” should not be taken as explicitly sexual. Ashton issues a similar warning, saying, “It should be remembered that, unless the context establishes beyond doubt the derogatory sense, it [the word maîtresse] means merely ‘the woman loved for her own sake.’” I’ve chosen “favorite” to maintain the ambiguity of the relationship.
- 14t
- The “partis” or “factions” at court inspire translators to use a language of hardball politics, with phrases like “join forces with him” (Cave; Perry-Lyons), “take his side and ally herself to him” (Buss), “in league with the Queen” (Cave), or “plotting with the Queen” (Perry-Lyons).
- 15t
- The term “un particulier” is often translated as a “private individual,” but the distinction between “private” and “public” is different in the novel than in the modern sense, as shown by the fact that the Maréchal’s spending comes from the King’s coffers. “Particulier” here means someone who is not a member of the royal family nor an office-holder such as a magistrate.
- 16t
- All translators render the term “belles personnes” as “beautiful women,” and other uses by Lafayette of “belle personne” are also translated as “beautiful woman.”
- 17t
- Translators are divided as to whether Madame de Chartres’s “bien” is material wealth (Cave; Buss) or moral fiber (Perry-Lyons; Mitford). I have chosen “goodness” because “wealth” or “property” seems repetitive, given that the prior sentence has announced that Mademoiselle de Chartres is a great heiress, and insisting upon the Chartres family’s wealth would seem to be out of keeping with Lafayette’s aristocratic narrative voice.
- 18t
- The “galanterie” that Madame de Chartres fears is clearly not the same as the idealistic chivalry expressed in the first paragraph of the novel. Hence translators render it as “matters of the heart” (Buss), “amorous entanglements” (Cave), “love” (Mitford), and “love-making” (Ashton), though Perry-Lyons chooses “gallantry.”
- 19t
- To translate “sa personne” as “her figure” (Buss and Cave) sounds a bit like Lafayette is taking Mademoiselle de Chartres’s measurements. The French term in this context means “outward appearance,” though it can also refer to the physical “person” of the individual. If Lafayette here were putting an emphasis on Mademoiselle de Chartres’s physique, then it would require us to attribute the same emphasis in other cases where she uses “sa personne,” such as in the description of the Maréchal de Saint-André in paragraph 7.
- 20t
- Though elsewhere they translate “personne” as “woman,” here Cave renders it as “young girl” and Buss as “lovely girl,” perhaps to emphasize Mademoiselle de Chartres’s youth. Perry-Lyons and Mitford prefer “person.”
- 21t
- A word about contractions: most translators scrupulously avoid them, perhaps out of a sense of reverence for the aristocratic context of the novel. But the overarching rule of aristocratic conversation at the time of Lafayette was that it be “familier”—unaffected, natural, familiar. Thus, when translating dialogue, I freely employ contractions, since they convey the relaxed and convivial tone of this conversational milieu—especially that of the young, gossipy Dauphine.
- 22t
- To translate “la galanterie” as “gallantry” (Perry-Lyons; Buss) here seems to rob the sentence of its true power, specifically the latent violence that lies behind the glorious spectacle of Henri II’s court. The English word “gallantry,” associated with elegance and courtesy, has a hard time accommodating the egotism that Lafayette implies.
- 23t
- The French “bienséance” (literally “well seated,” akin to the English “well suited,” as in “appropriate” or “proper”) describes the code of behavior that governs the court. Translators render it here as “social decorum” (Cave), “convention” (Buss), “sense of right” (Perry-Lyons), “reasons of propriety” (Ashton), and “interest” (Mitford).
- 24t
- Lafayette’s description of the court as “une sorte d’agitation sans désordre” is one of the most famous phrases in the book. Translators have sometimes inverted Lafayette’s syntax to render it as “ordered turbulence” (Buss), “orderly unrest” (Cave), or “discreetly exciting atmosphere”(!) (Mitford). Ashton and Perry-Lyons both go for the direct “agitation without disorder.”
- 25t
- Note the syntax of this sentence: Monsieur de Clèves expects Madame de Chartres to choose her daughter’s husband, and he expects the daughter to obey. But he hopes she obeys out of love, as well as out of duty.
- 26t
- Translating the delicate feelings of Mademoiselle de Chartres is tricky, both because the language of emotion in the novel is highly abstract, but also because Mademoiselle de Chartres is quite naïve. Nonetheless, Mademoiselle de Chartres’s use of the term “répugnance” stands out as a particularly strong sign that the character has no deep affection for Monsieur de Clèves. It seems too gentle to translate the term as “reluctance” (Cave; Mitford) or “disinclination” (Buss), but the English cognate “repugnance” seems too strong, given the gentleness of Mademoiselle de Chartres’s character—hence my choice of “antipathy.”
- 27t
- Mademoiselle de Chartres states that she has no inclination for “sa personne,” which could mean both Monsieur de Clèves’s personality but also his physical characteristics, as shown by other uses of “sa personne” in the text. On the other hand, given Mademoiselle de Chartres’s naïveté at this point, it is hard to attribute a strong erotic dimension to her statement. Cave and Mitford both choose “his person” for “sa personne,” which captures some of the physicality of the word, and Ashton says that Mademoiselle de Chartres has “no particular inclination for him personally.” Perhaps the best rendering would be done in contemporary teenage American parlance, with Mademoiselle de Chartres saying she was “just not that into him.”
- 28t
- The double negative of this sentence (“ne craignit point…ne pût aimer”) permits a dual interpretation of its meaning: either Madame de Chartres believes that her daughter will eventually come to love Monsieur de Clèves, or she does not care about her daughter’s marital preferences at all. Cave and Mitford both opt for the latter choice, but I think it important to preserve the ambiguity of the sentence as much as possible, since this shows the clever subtlety of Lafayette’s narrator, who avoids committing Madame de Clèves to a particular destiny. The fact that Madame de Clèves is a completely invented character frees her from the force of historical teleology and ultimately gives her an existential freedom that she will fully exercise at the end of the novel.
- 29t
- Since the French crown took enormous interest in the marriages contracted by the greatest noble families, I do not think that the discussion between Madame de Chartres and the King about the daughter’s marriage is simply that “the King was informed” (Cave, Buss, and Mitford) or that “the King was told of it” (Perry-Lyons). Rather, in classic Lafayette understatement, I think that the expression “parla au roi” contains the sense that the family spoke to the King to gain his assent.
- 30t
- I think it is important to specify “privileges over [Madame de Clèves]” and not simply “greater privileges” (Ashton; Cave; Perry-Lyons), since the contemporary reader may not grasp how the French term “privilèges” here indicates an entire body of French law that gives a husband authority over his wife.
- 31t
- I’ve avoided using the word possession in English—in contrast with, say, Buss, when he translates this phrase as “he had always something to desire beyond the possession of her”—because I think the English reader would interpret this mainly as “sexual conquest,” which then renders confusing the comparison to a lover, since a lover might also be seeking sexual conquest and nothing more. Monsieur de Clèves has legal possession over Madame de Clèves, which includes sexual possession, but what he wants—and what a lover can have—is precisely what lies outside his legal authority over his wife; namely, her passion.
- 32t
- The fact that the adjective “surprise” has a feminine ending in the original text is quite curious, since the impersonal expression that begins the sentence, and the neutral “on” that follows, would normally require a masculine adjective (“surpris”). This change is especially noteworthy considering that, in the very next sentence, the narrator tells us that “Monsieur de Nemours fut tellement surpris de sa beauté,” reinforcing the masculine form of the adjective. Translators have not made anything of this “surprising” adjectival aberration, but I have chosen to imply a feminization of the impersonal subject by rendering the sentence as “it was difficult for someone like Madame de Clèves not to be surprised.”
- 33t
- For the adjective “singulier,” translators have generally gone with “strange” (Cave; Mitford; Perry-Lyons), though Buss says “curious” and Ashton “unusual.” I’m closer to Ashton’s interpretation: given the “murmure de louanges” in the room, I think the royal family looks upon the dancing couple with wonder rather than disorientation.
- 34t
- Has the Chevalier physically thrown himself at the feet of the woman whom he loves but who does not love him in return? Such a melodramatic scene is suggested by translators who render the expression “à ses pieds” as “[he] was at her feet” (Buss; Cave). But this seems implausible, given the breach of etiquette that such an action would represent. I prefer the more metaphorical solution, in keeping with seventeenth-century usage of the expression, to mean “at someone’s service.” The Chevalier is near Madame de Clèves, but rather than physically being at the level of her feet, he is solicitous and modest, and his emotional submission to Madame de Clèves is made more tragic by the dance he has just witnessed, which convinces him that he shall never win her heart.
- 35t
- Conversation is considered an art in seventeenth-century France, and one of its principal rules is not to dominate. Thus, while the expression “maître de la conversation” might seem to suggest that Monsieur de Nemours is doing all the talking, I think it is incorrect to translate it as “dominated the conversation” (Cave) or even as “the focus of every conversation” (Perry-Lyons), since these choices would suggest that Nemours is violating conversational etiquette while the sentence is clearly complimenting him. See the essay on “enjouement” in “Five Keywords.”
- 36t
- This understatement by the Dauphine is a polite way of saying the opposite (i.e., that Nemours was interested in her). Translators render the euphemism with various degrees of emphasis: “he was not indifferent to me” (Ashton), “he did not hate me” (Cave, Perry-Lyons), “I was not displeasing to him” (Buss), and “I was not detested by him” (Mitford).
- 37t
- Only Cave translates “le mener promener” as “take him for a ride” as opposed to “take him for a walk.” I’m convinced he is right, more by Nemours’s character than by period dictionaries: the ever-virile Duc just seems like someone who would always prefer a horseback ride to a good stroll.
- 38t
- Madame de Chartres’s dying speech is a rhetorical masterpiece, and translators take care to highlight its mixture of deep tenderness and righteous menace. On the tender side, Cave renders “Ma fille” as “My dear daughter,” and Perry-Lyons and Buss turn Madame de Chartres’s “déplaisir” in leaving her daughter into actual “pain.” On the menacing side, Madame de Chartres’s warning that her daughter will have to take “de grands efforts et de grandes violences” becomes the need to “make an immense effort against your own inclinations” (Buss), “to make great efforts and do yourself great violence” (Cave), and even to make “a great effort, a violent struggle” (Perry-Lyons). As for “les malheurs d’une galanterie,” they are either, neutrally, “the consequences of a love-affair” (Perry-Lyons), or, a bit more tragically, “the unhappiness of an affair” (Buss), or, more apocalyptically, “the miseries of a love affair” (Cave), or “the wretchedness of a love affair” (Mitford).
- 39t
- Translators sometimes render the French “intelligence” here as an “understanding” between Nemours and his unknown lover (i.e., an arrangement to meet at specific times).
- 40t
- Here, interestingly, some translators render “personne” as “person” (Ashton; Buss; Cave) while others use the gendered “woman” or “lady” (Mitford; Perry-Lyons).
- 41t
- “De légères complaisances” hardly means that Nemours has ignored the Dauphine or been rude to her, and thus I disagree with translations that render the expression as “the most insignificant attentions” (Perry-Lyons) or “the slightest attentions” (Cave). Nemours has simply exhibited nothing more than what protocol or normal court sociability would require. Ashton is most on target with, “Nemours has never shown me more than polite attentions.”
- 42t
- “Whether Madame de Clèves is “reclining on her bed” (Ashton), “lying down” (Perry-Lyons), or simply “on her bed” (Buss), the act of receiving guests while situated on a bed is quite conventional for aristocratic women of this period.
- 43t
- While the French verb “rêver” may seem like innocuous daydreaming, it is a key action of a lover, as shown by period dictionaries as well as the pastoral tradition of earlier novels, in which shepherds and shepherdesses spend much of their time wandering through the forest and reflecting on love. For these reasons, I have chosen the expression “to entertain his fantasies” rather than the more tepid “daydream” (Cave), “alone with his thoughts” (Buss), or “meditation” (Perry-Lyons). Mitford comes closest to capturing the romantic and erotic significance of rêver with her suggestive expression “to indulge in his dreams.”
- 44t
- Curiously, while the adjective “particulier” can mean “extraordinary” or “excellent,” here it is being used to indicate the opposite (i.e., something that is limited to the private sphere of individuals rather than the public sphere of royal magnificence). Perry-Lyons translates the term as “meagre” and Buss as “modest,” but I think its use here is a combination of Cave’s “limited in scope” and Ashton’s “private.” One recalls that theatrical performances were not the exclusive privilege of royal patrons; by contrast, putting on a tournament could not be done by the urban bourgeoisie.
- 45t
- Interestingly, Buss takes the indefinite expression “l’on cessait de vous aimer” and uses it to suggest that the letter-writer wants to get her rival to stop loving the man. He translates the latter part of this sentence as “so that when you showed her the letters they would suggest the idea that it was possible to stop loving you.”
- 46t
- The statement “Madame de Clèves ne s’ennuyait pas” is a classic example of Lafayette’s understatement that carries rich, comic irony. Buss’s “[she] was not bored” is too literal; better is Cave’s “[she] was herself by no means bored.” Perry-Lyons’s “Madame de Clèves was amusing herself” dispenses entirely with the understatement while Ashton has the colorful “[she] did not find the time drag.” But the best sense of tongue-in-cheek is Mitford’s “[she] was not exactly bored herself.”
- 47t
- While most translators render “d’intelligence” as an “understanding” between Madame de Clèves and Nemours, I think this is too weak to capture the guilt that Madame de Clèves is expressing in this passage. An “intelligence” can be a malicious conspiracy or cabal, and thus I think “conspired with” is closer to the feeling that Madame de Clèves has here. Cave is on the same wavelength when he translates the term as “in league with,” and Ashton says, quite nicely, that Madame de Clèves “was an accomplice of Monsieur de Nemours.”
- 48t
- This passage represents the first time that the term “amant” is used to characterize Monsieur de Nemours in relationship to Madame de Clèves. While virtually every translator renders this word as “lover,” I think “suitor” is better for this initial use, since it maintains the emotional distance that Madame de Clèves is desperately trying to grasp.
- 49t
- The reader is excused from being able to concretely imagine the form and shape of the building at Coulommiers, since words like “pavillon” and “cabinets” are sufficiently general to evoke many possibilities. Ashton and Perry-Lyons refer to the “pavillon” as a “summer house,” though this scene likely occurs in the spring. Buss and Mitford refer to the two “cabinets” as “closets,” though the French word could suggest something larger. The strangest spatial term is when Lafayette says that the Clèves couple sits “sous le pavillon,” since they have entered the building.
- 50t
- For “repos”—a key term in the novel—I have here chosen “calm” instead of the usual “rest,” since Madame de Clèves is seeking peace of mind rather than a good night’s sleep. Cave seems to understand the insufficiency of “rest” since he translates “repos” as “rest and tranquility.” See the essay on “repos” in “Five Keywords.”
- 51t
- This paragraph is the famous “aveu” or confession made by the Princesse to her husband. The “Eh bien, Monsieur” that opens the paragraph conveys the rhetorical strength that Madame de Clèves assumes at this moment, and it has been variously rendered by translators as “Then, sir” (Ashton), “Well then, Monsieur” (Cave), “Well, sir” (Perry-Lyons), and, perhaps most interestingly, “So be it, then” (Buss). Mitford has the Princesse say “Alas!,” which seems completely wrong. See the essay on the term “aveu” in “Five Keywords.”
- 52t
- Buss alone translates “femmes” here as “wife” rather than “woman,” and the choice is justifiable, since Madame de Clèves’s actions are extraordinary because of the marital context. But “woman” makes a nicer balance with “man” in the following sentence.
- 53t
- Monsieur de Clèves’s “possession” of his wife refers to the legal rights he has as her husband whereas the English “possession” (used by Buss and Mitford) evokes strictly the sexual conquest. Clèves is saying that becoming a husband has not reduced his ardor for his wife—an opinion that would be considered strange by many people in seventeenth-century France (including Louis XIV), who viewed passion and marriage as incompatible. See the translator’s note at paragraph 46.
- 54t
- Monsieur de Nemours’s inability to see himself as the cause of Madame de Clèves’s confession underscores the extraordinary quality of the Princesse’s words: not even the court’s most experienced lover has ever heard anything like this. For more on how Madame de Clèves’s words were interpreted by the reading public at the time, see the letters from the Mercure Galant, reprinted at the end of the novel.
- 55t
- The impersonal expression “on le sait” (literally “one knows it”) reflects both Monsieur de Clèves’s politeness, euphemistically using the pronoun “on” rather than something more direct like “votre amant,” but also his inability to name the man who “knows” of Madame de Clèves’s feelings. Most translators use the expression “he knows it,” though Mitford and Perry-Lyons bravely use the passive “it is known.” I have chosen “someone else knows it” in order to capture Monsieur de Clèves’s sense of having a rival who is both anonymous and yet likely within his social circle.
- 56t
- This use of the verb “engager” is interesting, since—quite unlike the contemporary English verb meaning “to attract” or “to win over”—it suggests the power to compel obedience. Translators have rendered this clause as Nemours’s inability to “gain any influence” over Madame de Clèves (Perry-Lyons), “win over” the Princesse (Buss), “obtain the favours” of her (Cave), “bring to terms” the Princesse (Ashton), and even “have his way” with her (Mitford).
- 57t
- The verb “détruire” in seventeenth-century French is much stronger than simply “overcome” (Ashton), and most translators downplay the violence it implies, such as Perry-Lyons’s version that Monsieur de Clèves “was his strongest rival” or Buss’s “was the most formidable rival in his path.” This sentence reveals the cruelty behind Nemours’s hopes for conquering Madame de Clèves.
- 58t
- “Cette aventure est sue”—this dramatic revelation is rendered as “The matter is out” (Buss), “The story is out” (Cave), “the affair is known” (Ashton), “the story is known” (Perry-Lyons), and “the whole story has come out” (Mitford). I’ve added the personal adjective “my” because in all successive references, Madame de Clèves says the “aventure” is hers.
- 59t
- Once again the double meaning of “femme” shows up in the translations: “a woman he adored” (Ashton), “a wife whom he adored” (Buss and Cave); “his wife, whom he adored” (Perry-Lyons); “his adored wife” (Mitford). I have chosen “woman” for the euphonic contrast with “another man.”
- 60t
- I love Ashton’s poetic rendering of this sentence: “on all sides he saw only the abyss and the void.”
- 61t
- I have maintained the unity of this single long sentence to convey how Monsieur de Clèves’s advice to his wife is a series of prescriptions (rendered in French via the successive dependent clauses qu’elle…qu’elle…qu’elle) that leave her—and the reader—little room to breathe. One might call this a seventeenth-century form of “mansplaining.”
- 62t
- Unfortunately, no word in English can equal the value of “éclat,” which here means “shard” or “splinter,” but has echoes of other uses in the text in which it means “renown” or, as in the adjective “éclatant,” a sense of “brilliance” or “splendor.” Henri II’s excessive need for chivalric glory (his search for “éclat”) literally kills him (with an “éclat”). This is why I chose to translate the “témoignages…éclatants” of the first paragraph of the novel as “he displayed [his passion] no less strikingly,” since this initial paragraph evokes the ultimate death of Henri, from Montgomery’s strike. Ashton also uses “striking” in his rendering of this sentence (“[he] gave no less striking evidences of its sway”).
- 63t
- Note how the royal titles have now changed: the Dauphin is now the King, the Dauphine is now the Queen, and the Queen is now the Queen mother.
- 64t
- Buss and Ashton both make a nice reference to the French “face” in translating this sentence as “The whole complexion of the court changed.”
- 65t
- Does Monsieur de Clèves fear his wife looking at Monsieur de Nemours or having Nemours gaze at his wife? The French “sa vue” allows for both possibilities. Some translators avoid the question by translating the phrase as “meeting a man she loved” (Perry-Lyons; Ashton), which removes the erotic power of vision. Cave thinks it is the gaze of Nemours.
- 66t
- This is a rare moment where Lafayette’s use of “Reine Dauphine” seems to be erroneous, since, as shown by the final line of part III, Marie-Stuart is already recognized as Queen.
- 67t
- The “dîner” in seventeenth-century France was a midday meal.
- 68t
- The word “rigueurs” means a lover’s refusal, as the Furetière dictionary explains: “On dit aussi les rigueurs d’une maîtresse, pour dire, sa vertu, le refus qu’elle fait de ses faveurs” (“One uses the expression ‘the rigueurs of a mistress’ to mean her virtue, the refusal she makes of her favors”). Hence the opposite of “rigueurs” in love discourse is “faveurs”—one might consider these the “no” and “yes” of a lover. Buss translates “rigueurs” as “obduracy,” Perry-Lyons and Ashton as “severity,” and Cave as “affectation of severity.”
- 69t
- The tonic accent that falls on “parlé” emphasizes Monsieur de Clèves’s point, hence my use of italics. Cave conveys it with: “But it is clear, Madame: he has spoken to you.” Ashton also uses italics: “But, Madame, he has spoken to you.” For Mitford: “The answer is that he has spoken.”
- 70t
- “Malheureux” can certainly mean “unhappy,” but I feel that Monsieur de Clèves is using it in its more primordial sense as “damné” (Furetière)—damned by God.
- 71t
- The various translations of “aimable” reveal the wealth of Nemours’s charms: “fascinating” (Perry-Lyons and Mitford), “attractive” (Ashton and Cave), “charming” (Buss).
- 72t
- Cave: “What indeed are they doing to me!”; Perry-Lyons: “And see what they do!”; Buss: “Alas, what else do they do!”
- 73t
- “Honnêteté” for a man encompasses sincerity, kindness, civility, and fairness (whereas for a woman this same term means chastity and modesty). Monsieur de Clèves could be apologizing for his unkind outburst of the previous paragraph (e.g., Ashton’s translation of the term as “courtesy”), but it could also be that he is opening his heart to her and, thus, in this context, the term might be translated as “candor.”
- 74t
- Virtually all of the English translations agree with the text of the original 1678 French edition of the novel that Madame de Clèves has commissioned the reproduction of these paintings. However, many modern French editions of the novel have adopted a correction made by an unknown hand on certain copies of the 1678 edition, suggesting that Monsieur de Clèves—not his wife—commissioned the reproduction of the paintings. To understand the stakes of this debate, consult the article by Joan DeJean, “X-Rated: Removing Madame de Clèves from La Princesse de Clèves,” French Review 80, no. 2 (2006): 436–41.
- 75t
- I’ve chosen “lover” here for “amant” whereas earlier in the text I would have translated it as “suitor” or “admirer,” because Madame de Clèves is accepting the true nature of her feelings for Nemours. Ashton and Perry-Lyons also use “lover” while Buss uses “object of her affections” and Cave uses “suitor.”
- 76t
- The new “lieue de Paris” from 1674 was two thousand “toises” or 3.898 km. Hence a “demi-lieue” is 1.949 km or 1.211 miles, or “about a mile.”
- 77t
- Cave, Ashton, and Mitford translate this as a “Malacca cane.”
- 78t
- This rendering, which may be controversial, continues with the notion that “faveur” in love discourse is a sign of accepting the suitor’s advances. What can be more of a sign than the inviting gesture?
- 79t
- The text uses the future tense here, to heighten the sense of frustration that Monsieur de Nemours feels in foreseeing his destiny. Other translators render this as “I am to be loved” or, with Buss, as a question: “Am I to be loved…?”
- 80t
- “Charming” (Cave and Perry-Lyons); “adorable” (Buss); “lovable” (Ashton”).
- 81t
- To capture this “horreur”: “I dread living” (Perry-Lyons), “Life would be repugnant to me” (Cave), “I should find life horrible” (Ashton), “Life would have been odious to me” (Mitford), and an interesting past tense, “Life appalled me” (Buss).
- 82t
- Since “crimes” can be both those against the state and against God, some translators render this word as “sin” (Buss; Ashton; Mitford).
- 83t
- Both Buss and Cave suggest, in their rendering, that Madame de Clèves is thinking of taking up silk weaving (e.g., “she might do something similar herself” Cave), but the double “faire faire” means that she’s thinking of having the silk made for her.
- 84t
- This “first” conversation between Nemours and Madame de Clèves is the longest dialogue in the book, and Lafayette’s elliptical style often makes it difficult to understand the sequencing of remarks (i.e., why Clèves says this in response to Nemours saying that). Translators (including this one) rely on various strategies to indicate the coherence of the conversation, but as we will see, these exegetical tricks can go too far.
- 85t
- Buss translates this as “Though I have never declared it to you” in order to indicate to the reader that this is the most open declaration of love Nemours has ever made to Madame de Clèves.
- 86t
- The very economical “A quelle épreuve a-t-elle été?” becomes, for Cave, “Has it not been thoroughly put to the test?”—another example of compensating for the text.
- 87t
- The “quand” here functions as an “encore que,” which is why it normally gets translated as “if.”
- 88t
- I’ve maintained the repetition “Not only have I seen…but I’ve seen,” since this reflects the French repetition “je l’ai vu...je l’ai vu,” but Buss chooses instead the more explanatory change of verbs: “not only that I observed it, but that I interpreted it as you would have wished me to.” Perry-Lyons avoids the repetition with “not only that I have noticed it, but also just as you wished it to appear.”
- 89t
- The simplest rendering of “que j’aie avoué” is the indicative past: “that I confessed.” But the subjunctive here suggests that Madame de Clèves does not want to fully admit the reality of the confession. She’s asking Nemours how he discovered the possibility that she did such an act, as if to preserve the intimacy of the confession. Hence her interruption of Nemours a few lines later when she realizes that his eavesdropping leaves no further room for doubt.
- 90t
- Buss and Cave both give the verb “inspirer” an erotic overtone: “you aroused feelings in me.”
- 91t
- I’m interpreting “le trouble qui les suit toujours” as the unease that still accompanies the initial shock (i.e., an unease that continues to remain with Madame de Clèves). Other translators interpret it as the feeling “that always accompanies them,” as if Madame de Clèves were now an expert in the psychology of love and could state with assurance what “always” happens. I think this seems dubious.
- 92t
- I use “genuine” here for “véritable” because Madame de Clèves is picking up on Nemours’s previous comment that the reasons for her duty are not “véritables.” He’s saying, “you don’t have any real justification,” and she’s retorting in kind with, “what’s real is that you killed my husband.”
- 93t
- Cave translates “extrémités” as “the ultimate test” and says, in a footnote, that Madame de Clèves is referring to a duel between her husband and Nemours.
- 94t
- The next several lines, in the French, all use the conditionnel passé (i.e., “I would have found…I would have seen…etc.”). The reason for this comes only toward the end of the paragraph, when Nemours says that all his dreams would have been true if Madame de Clèves had not put obstacles in his path. To make it easier for English readers, all other translators use either the present perfect (“Have I found…have I seen? etc..”) or, with Ashton, the present (“I entertain…I find…etc.”). But Lafayette has chosen the past conditional for a reason—perhaps to underscore the implausibility of Nemours’s fate, by putting his conquest into an unrealized past, or perhaps to suggest that Nemours is already ceding authority, his ideal becoming a failure.
- 95t
- I’ve used parentheses around several lines in this paragraph because they truly constitute an aside, discussing whether a lover can also be a spouse, before Nemours returns to the continuation of his conditionnel passé that he began earlier. He himself indicates this return to the prior subject with his “dis-je,” meaning “as I was saying.” Cave sets these lines off with double dashes.
- 96t
- The elliptical “distinction” gets a full-scale unpacking in Cave’s translation, where the phrase “sans cette distinction” becomes “were it not that I do indeed see in you qualities superior to those of other men.”
- 97t
- Madame de Clèves now moves into the second part of the conversation, where she will reveal different reasons for her actions. Hence my addition of “Then.”
- 98t
- Here, another devastating conditionnel passé that most translators flatten into a simple past: “he found no passion in me.” But Madame de Clèves is not just saying that her husband didn’t find passion in her; she’s saying that he would never have found passion in her. If he were to have lived, she hypothesizes, he would have continued to seek such passion, and she would have never developed it.
- 99t
- Nemours’s mention of “trop d’injustice” suggests the juridical flavor of this discussion, which Madame de Clèves will reinforce in her next response. He has become a plaintiff, hoping for “faveur” from the woman who sits in judgment.
- 100t
- I use “object” here for “se plaindre” rather than “complain,” because the vocabulary of Madame de Clèves’s remarks evokes legal terminology. Terms like “prendre parti,” “se plaindre,” and “reprocher” can all be used in the context of a legal dispute, and Madame de Clèves is suggesting that a wife stuck in an unfaithful marriage has no remedy other than suffering, because the husband’s lack of affection does not rise to the level of meriting legal action. One must suffer, in other words, because divorce is not an option.
- 101t
- This concise formulation pits the idea of Madame de Clèves’s “forces” (which Furetière defines as the “vigueur” of one’s “constitution naturelle”) against that of her “raisons”—somewhat like a conflict between body and mind. Buss renders it as “Even as I argue it, I mistrust my strength,” and Cave as “I put little faith in my own powers, despite all the reasons I can muster,” while Ashton says, “I mistrust my strength in the midst of my reasoning,” and Perry-Lyons says, “I mistrust my own strength, supported by all my arguments.” Mitford is more optimistic, with “I might be doubtful of my power to do so, were it not for my reasons.” I’ve chosen a stronger rendering for “me défie” than “doubt” in order to echo Madame de Chartres’s initial counsel to her daughter (12) that she must have “une extrême défiance de soi-même,” which I translated as “extreme self-discipline.” Madame de Clèves is fulfilling her mother’s prescription, not through self-doubt but through self-discipline.
- 102t
- Here, one recalls the story of Madame de Tournon (recounted in paragraphs 131–56), in which her condition as a widow prevents her from hastily marrying Sancerre lest she violate social decorum.
- 103t
- To understand the meaning of “cette vue si longue et si prochaine de la mort,” we should recall that the term for a telescope in the seventeenth century is “une lunette à longue vue,” which, as Furetière tells us, “approche les espèces des corps éloignés et les grossit” (“brings distant bodies closer and enlarges them”). In other words, it’s not that Madame de Clèves looks for a long time upon death, but rather that she looks out upon the unlimited scope of death, seeing it as both imminent and forever. Hence, I disagree with translations that suggest a temporal length to Madame de Clèves’s viewing, such as Cave’s “This long, close look at death,” or Buss’s “So long and so near a contemplation of death,” or, worse, Ashton’s “This protracted and close view of death.”
- 104t
- Since Lafayette refers to Madame de Clèves being taken to a “couvent” (convent) in paragraph 471, the wording here suggests something different, so I have left it as “house of religion.” Note that Lafayette compares Madame de Clèves’ life on her estate to that of a convent in the penultimate sentence of the novel.
- 105t
- The necessity of obtaining a royal “privilège,” or letters of permission for publishing a book in France, dates to the reign of François I (1515–47), though the rules were strengthened under the reign of Henri II, who is King of France during most of the plot of La Princesse de Clèves. Issued by the Chancellerie—the highest administrative office of royal law in France prior to the Revolution, somewhat akin to the office of a Minister of Justice—the “privilège” gave to a publisher-bookseller (not an author) the exclusive right to print, publish, and sell a book for a specific duration of time. This form of “privilège” was abolished by the nascent National Assembly in August 1789, during the initial stage of the French Revolution, though censorship of some form continued beyond the Revolution.
- 106t
- The title “Roi de France et de Navarre” dates from 1589, when the King of Navarre, Henri III, acceded to the French throne and reigned as Henri IV. The Navarre region, in southwest France, was already affiliated to the French crown by virtue of the marriage of François I’s sister, Marguerite, to Henri II of Navarre. In the novel, the King of Navarre is Antoine de Bourbon, father of the future Henri IV.
- 107t
- The first-person plural form of all personal pronouns and adjectives in the document (our, us, we) reflects the way that the King referred to himself in legal acts—what is called, in English, the “royal we.”
- 108t
- The term “amés et féaux” was a standard formula (in archaic spelling) used in royal documents to honor the judicial officers being addressed.
- 109t
- The “Parlements” or Parliaments of France were high judicial courts dealing with both civil and criminal matters. While the Parlement de Paris was the oldest and most important, there were ten regional parliaments at the time of the novel’s publication in 1678—located in Toulouse, Grenoble, Bordeaux, Dijon, Aix, Rouen, Rennes, Pau, Metz, and Besançon. The parliaments also had a role in formally “registering” laws or edicts from the King, giving them a quasi-legislative authority and making them sources of occasional opposition to royal command.
- 110t
- All of these titles refer to various judicial offices—some dating to the Middle Ages—that administered the complex legal bureaucracy of France in the seventeenth century. Some of them, such as Baillis and Sénéchaux, were provincial officers, while others, such as the Maîtres des Requêtes, served in the King’s inner councils. Theoretically, all of them might play a role in the execution of the “privilège” or in any legal dispute that could follow.
- 111t
- As is standard in royal documents, the King’s greeting ends the list of officers he is addressing.
- 112t
- Claude Barbin (1628–98) published works by some of the most famous literary authors of seventeenth-century France, including Molière, Racine, La Fontaine, Scudéry, Villedieu, and La Rochefoucauld. According to Nathalie Grande, he is responsible for helping to popularize the prose genre of the historical novella, of which La Princesse de Clèves is the most famous example. See her “Claude Barbin, Un libraire pour dames?” Revue de la BNF 39 (2011): 22–27.
- 113t
- It’s unclear why the French uses both verbs “vendre et débiter,” since they are synonyms, but period dictionaries suggest that “débiter” is only used with professional merchandise whereas “vendre” can refer to any sale whatsoever. Hence my rendering as “sold or marketed.”
- 114t
- Strange as it may seem to translate “livres” as “pounds,” the French word derives from the notion of a coin’s weight, inherited from the Roman era and the Latin word “libra,” and is also reflected in the symbol £ for the British pound .
- 115t
- Under Louis XIV, this library was located on the rue Vivienne, on the right bank of Paris, near the site where the Bibliothèque nationale de France (rue de Richelieu) would later be situated.
- 116t
- As Chancellor of France, Michel Le Tellier (1603–85) was an officer in the ceremonial Ordre du Saint-Esprit (Order of the Holy Spirit), a chivalric order created in 1578 by King Henri III.
- 117t
- The verb “signifier” in this context means “to make known” a legal act or judgment, so that no one can violate it on the pretext of ignorance. The “agents de signification” (agents responsible for disseminating and executing judicial decisions) were the huissiers and sergents, mentioned in the next phrase.
- 118t
- As mentioned in the prior note, the huissier is an officer of a judicial court whose responsibility is to disseminate and execute a judicial decision. Etymologically, this person guards the door (the huis) of a court, which is why the common English translation for this function is “bailiff,” but note that the bailli (which is the etymological root of the word “bailiff”) performs a different judicial function. Today the term huissier in French can simply designate someone who opens or guards a door.
- 119t
- The expression “Tel est notre plaisir” dates at least to the fifteenth century as a formula expressing the King’s will in any royal act or document. While the sentence suggests absolute authority, the fact that so many judicial officers were involved in the administration of law (as shown by the different titles mentioned in this document) indicates that the French King’s power was always mediated through others.
- 120t
- The royal palace of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, located outside the western city limits of Paris, was the birthplace of Louis XIV.
- 121t
- Jean-Pierre-Arnaud Junquières (1639–1718) served as the first secretary to Chancellor Le Tellier.
- 122t
- The Parliamentary Act of April 8, 1653, mandated that all “privilèges” for books needed to be registered by the professional organization or “chambre syndicale” of printers and booksellers.
- 123t
- The “syndic” is the representative of a particular professional organization; here the booksellers and printers. This particular representative appears to be Edme Couterot (16??–1687), a Parisian publisher-bookseller whose own “privilèges” are largely for books related to Catholic theology and spirituality.
Historical Characters
Le roi, Henri II
(1519-1559)

Second son of King François I, Henri II, duc d’Orléans, became the heir to the French throne upon his elder brother’s death in 1536 and became king of France after François I’s death in 1547. Henri II’s reign was defined by an imperialist vision seeking to counter the ambitions of the English throne, the Spanish kingdom, and the Holy Roman Empire, as well as hostility toward the growth of French Protestantism. Henri’s closest councilors were the connétable (constable) de Montmorency, the maréchal de Saint-André and the princes de Guise, especially the duc François de Guise and the cardinal de Lorraine (Charles de Guise). A warrior king, Henri II undertook numerous military operations which culminated in the ratification of the treaties of Cateau-Cambrésis (April 2-3, 1559). The treaty put an end to the Italian Wars and restored a relative peace between France and its neighboring nations. The novel’s political background takes place towards the very end of Henri’s rule and covers the preparations that led to the Cateau-Cambésis treaties, which arranged the weddings between Élisabeth de France (daughter of Henri II and Catherine de Médicis) with Don Carlos (who will eventually be replaced at her side by his father, King Philippe of Spain), and Marguerite de France (King Henri’s sister), who will marry Emmanuel-Philibert, duc de Savoie.
Deuxième fils du roi François Ier, Henri II, duc d’Orléans, devient le roi dauphin à la mort de son frère aîné en 1536, et roi de France à la mort de son père François Ier en 1547. Le règne d’Henri II est marqué par une politique impérialiste, qui cherche à contrer les ambitions de l’Angleterre, du royaume d’Espagne, et du Saint-Empire romain germanique, et par une hostilité à l'égard de l’expansion du protestantisme français. Les conseillers d’Henri les plus proches sont le connétable de Montmorency, le maréchal de Saint-André et les princes de la maison de Guise, notamment le duc François de Guise et le cardinal de Lorraine (Charles de Guise). Roi guerrier, Henri II entreprend plusieurs opérations militaires qui culminent avec la ratification des traités de Cateau-Cambrésis (2-3 avril 1559), mettant un terme aux guerres d’Italie et rétablissant une paix relative entre la France et les États voisins. L’arrière-plan politique du roman se situe à la toute fin du règne d’Henri II et porte sur les préparatifs des traités de Cateau-Cambrésis avec le double mariage, d’une part, d’Élisabeth de France (fille d’Henri II et de Catherine de Médicis) avec Don Carlos (remplacé au dernier moment par Philippe II, père de Don Carlos), infant d’Espagne, et, d’autre part, Marguerite de France (sœur d’Henri II) avec Emmanuel-Philibert duc de Savoie.



Duchesse de Valentinois, Diane de Poitiers
(1500-1566)

Widow of Louis de Brézé (1463-1531), grand sénéchal of Normandy, whom she had married in 1515. Diane de Poitiers was the favorite of King Henri II, after having been in charge of his education and after having been the favorite of his father, King François I, before she was supplanted by the duchesse d’Étampes. Beyond many royal favors and the elevated charge of educating the royal children, Diane received from King Henri the title of duchesse de Valentinois. She is mentioned by this title of at the start of the novel ahead of the queen, underscoring her powerful position in the king’s heart and court. At Henri’s death, she lost all her privileges and retired to her property in Normandy, the castle of Anet, mentioned in the novel in this passage.
Veuve de Louis de Brézé (1463-1531), grand sénéchal de Normandie, qu’elle épouse en 1515, Diane de Poitiers est la favorite du roi Henri II, après avoir été en charge de son éducation et après avoir été la favorite de François Ier, supplantée par la duchesse d’Étampes. Outre de nombreuses faveurs royales et la charge de l’éducation des enfants royaux, elle reçoit le titre de duchesse de Valentinois. Elle est mentionnée sous ce nom dans l’incipit du roman avant même que la reine ne soit nommée, ce qui souligne le rôle influent de Diane de Poitiers auprès du roi et au sein de la cour. À la mort d’Henri II, Diane de Poitiers perd tous ses privilèges et se retire dans sa propriété en terre normande, le château d’Anet décrit dans ce passage.


Mademoiselle de La Marck
(1544-1612)
Diane de La Marck, granddaughter of Diane de Poitiers and young noblewoman awaiting marriage. While she remains unmarried in the novel, in actuality she married Jacques de Clèves, duc de Nevers, pair de France. In other words, Diane de La Marck is the historical wife of Monsieur de Clèves. Lafayette, in what could be read as a wink to her readers, mentions La Marck in the first pages of the novel only to brush her aside because the imaginary character of Mademoiselle de Chartres becomes the wife of Monsieur de Clèves.
Diane de La Marck, petite-fille de Diane de Poitiers et jeune fille à marier. En 1588, elle épouse Jacques de Clèves, duc de Nevers, pair de France, alors que dans le roman elle reste célibataire. Lafayette invente le personnage de mademoiselle de Chartres pour être la future épouse du prince de Clèves.
La reine, Catherine de Médicis
(1519-1589)

Catherine de Médicis is the wife of King Henri II. She belonged to the powerful Medici family of Florence, Italy, and married Henri before he became next in line to the French throne. She influenced the court of France through her Italian taste and important political maneuvers. She endured the presence of Diane de Poitiers, duchesse de Valentinois, mistress of Henri II, throughout her husband’s reign. This rivalry between the queen of France and the king’s favorite divided the court, as the first pages of the novel describe so clearly. As queen-mother (a role she assumed with the death of Henri II, portrayed at the end of Part Three), Catherine de Médicis saw three of her sons succeed to the French throne (François II, Charles IX, and Henri III) and she governed the kingdom of France as regent multiple times. She is known for supporting the arts, especially between France and Italy. While Lafayette often depicts her as lacking the influence of the duchesse de Valentinois or the dauphine, she would later acquire a more Machiavellian reputation during the French Wars of Religion. She is thought to have instigated the violence that led to the St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre—targeted assassinations of Protestant leaders and mob violence against Protestants. She is never named in the novel, only referred to by her title, “the Queen.”
Appartenant à la puissante famille des Médicis de Florence, en Italie, Catherine de Médicis épouse Henri II avant qu’il ne monte sur le trône de France. Elle influence la cour de France tant par son goût lié à ses origines italiennes que son rôle non négligeable sur l’échiquier politique. Elle doit composer avec la présence de Diane de Poitiers, duchesse de Valentinois, dans la vie d’Henri II. Cette rivalité entre la reine de France et la favorite du roi divise la cour, comme le décrivent si bien les premières pages du roman. Reine-mère (un rôle qu’elle assume à la mort d’Henri II, représenté à la fin de la troisième partie), Catherine de Médicis voit trois de ses fils monter sur le trône (François II, Charles IX et Henri III) et gouverne le royaume de France en tant que régente à plusieurs reprises. Son nom reste attaché à une politique de mécénat des arts marquée par les échanges culturels entre l’Italie et la France. Le portrait largement sympathique qu'elle reçoit dans le roman contraste avec sa réputation ultérieure pendant les guerres de religion. Catherine de Médicis joue un rôle important dans le massacre planifié de la Saint-Barthélemy, fait saillant des guerres de religion marqué par l’assassinat de milliers de protestants dont plusieurs chefs huguenots. Désignée par son titre (« la Reine », « la Reine mère » à la suite de la mort du roi Henri II), elle n’est jamais mentionnée par le nom de Catherine de Médicis dans le roman.

Le dauphin, François de Valois
(1518-1536)

In this case, the reference is to François de Valois (1518-36), duc de Bretagne. The eldest son of King François I and Claude de France, he was the heir apparent to the throne of France until his premature death, when Henri II, his younger brother, became next in line to the throne. The sad fate of François de Valois mentioned in the interpolated story related to Diane de Poitiers in part 1 of the novel has enormous consequences for the power that Diane will acquire as Henri II’s favorite.
Fils aîné du roi François Ier et de Claude de France, François de Valois, duc de Bretagne, est l’héritier présomptif du trône de France. En raison de sa mort prématurée, Henri II, son frère cadet, est le prochain à monter sur le trône de France. La mort de François de Valois, mentionnée dans l’histoire intercalée de Diane de Poitiers vers la fin de la première partie du roman, a des conséquences sur le pouvoir que va acquérir cette dernière en tant que favorite d’Henri II.
Le roi, François Ier
(1494-1515)

King of France from 1515-47, father of Henri II. Patron of the arts and famously invested in grand architectural projects (he financed renovations of the Louvre and the Château de Blois, constructed the Château de Chambord, reconstructed and expanded the Château de Fontainebleau, etc.). François I epitomizes the figure of the Renaissance prince. Over the course of his long reign, he was embroiled in the Italian Wars, he fought against the power of the Habsburg empire led by Charles V, he developed an important foreign policy (including missions to America and an alliance with the Ottoman empire), and brought many reforms to the administration of the French kingdom, including making French the official language of law and administration instead of Latin or other dialects (the ordonnance of Villers-Cotterêts in 1539). His favorites included the duchesse de Valentinois—who became the favorite of his son Henri II—and the duchesse d’Étampes.
Roi de France (1515-1547), père d’Henri II. Patron des arts et roi bâtisseur (rénovation du château du Louvre et du château de Blois ; construction du château de Chambord, reconstruction et expansion du château de Fontainebleau, etc.), François Ier incarne la figure du prince de la Renaissance. Au cours de son règne, il poursuit les fameuses guerres d’Italie, lutte contre le pouvoir des Habsbourg dominé par Charles Quint, développe une politique extérieure d’envergure (des missions en Amérique, une alliance avec l’empire Ottoman, etc.) et réforme l’administration du royaume, notamment en faisant du français la langue officielle du droit et de l’administration en remplacement du latin et des dialectes (ordonnance de Villers-Cotterêts datée de 1539). Parmi ses favorites, on compte la duchesse de Valentinois—qui va devenir par la suite la favorite de son fils Henri II—et la duchesse d’Étampes.

Élisabeth de France
(1545-1568)

Elder daughter of King Henri II and Catherine de Médicis. At the novel’s opening, she is on the verge of marrying Don Carlos, heir to the throne of Spain. Fate had other plans since she ultimately married his much older father, the king of Spain, Philip II, when he suddenly became a widower upon the death of his wife, Queen Mary of England in 1559. Élisabeth’s story, fictionalized in the Abbé de Saint-Réal’s historical novel, Dom Carlos, published six years before Lafayette’s, is that of another tragic female destiny and would have been very familiar to the readers of La Princesse de Clèves. Giuseppi Verdi later created an opera based on the Don Carlos story.
Élisabeth de France est la fille aînée d’Henri II et de Catherine de Médicis. Quand le roman s’ouvre, elle est sur le point d’épouser Don Carlos, infant d’Espagne. Mais le destin en décide autrement puisqu’elle épouse le roi d’Espagne Philippe II, devenu subitement veuf à la mort de sa femme Marie Ire d’Angleterre, en 1559. Racontée dans le roman historique de l’abbé de Saint-Réal, Dom Carlos, publié six ans avant celui de Lafayette, l’histoire d’Élisabeth est celle d’un autre destin tragique d’une princesse qui dépasse les limites du roman, mais que les lecteurs contemporains de Lafayette auraient reconnu comme tel. Giuseppe Verdi a créé par la suite un opéra basé sur l’histoire de Don Carlos.
Marie Stuart (Mary, Queen of Scots)
(1542-1587)

Daughter of Marie de Guise and James V of Scotland, Marie Stuart became queen of Scotland upon the death of her father, only a few days after her birth. In 1558 she married the heir to the French throne, François II, which gave her the title of the dauphine of France. In the novel, the expressions “Madame la Dauphine” and “la Reine Dauphine” designate Marie Stuart. In 1559, when François II inherited the throne (at the end of Part Three of the novel), she became the queen of France. But it was a short reign, since François II died in 1560, and in 1561 Marie Stuart left France for Scotland where she had to confront the Reformation. Her only son, James VI of Scotland, succeeded Queen Elizabeth on the English throne in 1603. Marie Stuart was decapitated, accused of having participated in a Catholic plot to assassinate the Protestant queen of England. Marie Stuart emblematizes yet another tragic female destiny among the many presented in Lafayette’s novel.
Fille de Marie de Guise et de Jacques V d’Écosse, Marie Stuart devient reine d’Écosse à la mort de son père, quelques jours seulement après sa naissance. Son mariage en 1558 avec le dauphin de France, François II, lui confère le titre de dauphine de France. Dans le roman, les expressions « Madame la Dauphine » et « la Reine Dauphine » désignent Marie Stuart. En 1559, au moment où François II accède au trône (à la fin de la troisième partie du roman), elle devient reine de France (quatrième partie). Mais le règne est de courte durée puisque François II meurt en 1560, et, en 1561, Marie Stuart quitte la France pour retourner en Écosse où elle doit affronter la Réforme. L’unique fils auquel elle donne naissance en secondes noces, Jacques VI d’Écosse, succède à Élisabeth Ire sur le trône d’Angleterre (1603). Marie Stuart meurt décapitée, accusée d’avoir participé à un complot catholique en vue d’assassiner la reine d’Angleterre de confession protestante. On peut établir un parallèle entre le destin tragique de Marie Stuart et celui de la Princesse de Clèves dans le roman.

Le dauphin, François II
(1544-1560)

The reference is to François II, elder son of King Henri II and Catherine de Médicis. In 1558, François II wed Marie Stuart, queen of Scotland. He inherited the French throne from Henri II in 1559 (as described at the end of Part Three and the start of Part Four). The reign of François II was very brief because of his early death in 1560—the plot of the novel ends before the death of François II.
François II est le fils aîné d’Henri II et de Catherine de Médicis. En 1558, il épouse Marie Stuart, reine d’Écosse. Il succède à Henri II sur le trône de France en 1559 (voir la fin de la troisième partie et le début de la quatrième partie du roman). Le règne de François II sera très court à cause de sa mort prématurée en 1560—l’intrigue du roman se termine avant la mort de François II.
Madame, Marguerite de France
(1523-1574)

Referred to as “Madame, sister to the king.” Also known as Marguerite de Valois or Marguerite de France, duchesse de Berry, she was the daughter of King François I and Claude de France, and the younger sister of King Henri II. At the start of the novel, she is on the verge of marrying the duc de Savoie, a diplomatic marriage arranged as part of the peace negotiations in Europe following the Italian Wars (cf. the treaties of Cateau-Cambrésis signed in 1559). It was during the joint celebrations for her wedding and that of Élisabeth de France with Philip II of Spain that Henri II was fatally wounded, putting an end to the festivities and transforming them into mourning rituals. Hers was yet another example of a sad female destiny for a princess linked to a political marriage. She left the French court for Italy, as noted in part 3 of the novel. It was customary at the French court to call the oldest among the king’s younger brothers or sisters “Monsieur”/“Madame.”
Désignée par l’appellation « Madame, sœur du roi » dans le roman, Marguerite de France, duchesse de Berry, est la fille du roi François Ier et de Claude de France, et la sœur cadette du roi Henri II, connue aussi sous le nom de Marguerite de Valois. Au début du roman, elle est sur le point d’épouser le duc de Savoie, un mariage politique qui fait partie des négociations de paix en Europe à la suite des guerres d’Italie (traités de Cateau-Cambrésis signés en 1559). C’est lors des célébrations de ce mariage et de celui d’Élisabeth de France avec Philippe II d’Espagne qu’Henri II est mortellement blessé mettant fin aux réjouissances et les transformant ainsi en deuil. Il s’agit aussi d’un triste destin pour une princesse lié à un mariage politique. Elle quitte définitivement la cour, tel qu’indiqué dans la troisième partie du roman. L’usage veut que le frère cadet le plus âgé / la sœur cadette la plus âgée du roi soit nommé(e) « Monsieur »/« Madame ».
Roi de Navarre, Antoine de Bourbon
(1518-1562)

Antoine de Bourbon was the son of Charles IV de Bourbon, duc de Vendôme, and Françoise d’Alençon. In 1548 he wed Jeanne d’Albret, daughter of the king of Navarre. Antoine de Bourbon was duc de Vendôme from 1537 until 1555, when he inherited the crown of Navarre. He oscillated between Catholic and Protestant sides. Although his wife and younger brother (the prince de Condé) were important Protestant leaders, he fought on the side of the Catholics during the first War of Religion and died during the siege of Rouen. His son, Henri de Bourbon, became the first Bourbon king of France under the name of Henri IV, grandfather to Louis XIV, the king in power contemporary to Lafayette.
Antoine de Bourbon est le fils de Charles IV de Bourbon, duc de Vendôme, et de Françoise d’Alençon. En 1548, il épouse Jeanne d’Albret, la fille du roi de Navarre. Après la mort de son père, Antoine de Bourbon est duc de Vendôme de 1537 jusqu’en 1555, quand il obtient la couronne de Navarre. Il oscille entre les catholiques et les protestants. Bien que sa femme et son frère cadet (le prince de Condé) soient d’importants chefs du parti protestant, il combat avec les catholiques pendant la première guerre de religion et meurt au cours du siège de Rouen. Son fils, Henri de Bourbon, deviendra le premier roi de France issu de la lignée des Bourbon sous le nom d’Henri IV, grand-père de Louis XIV, le roi au pouvoir contemporain de Lafayette.

Duc de Guise, François de Lorraine
(1519-1563)

François de Lorraine, duc d’Aumale from 1547-50, inherited the title of duc de Guise, which he held from 1550 to 1563 as the first-born son upon the death of his father. He was raised at court alongside the future king of France, Henri II. François de Lorraine led a brilliant military career during the Italian Wars and was considered one of the greatest warriors of his age. He distinguished himself at the famous siege of Metz (1552) where the French defeated the imperial army of Charles V. The painting of the siege of Metz is central to one of the key scenes of the novel between Nemours and the princesse de Clèves in part 4. In 1558, the duc de Guise recaptured the town of Calais, thus putting an end to two centuries of English occupation there. His exploits earned him numerous distinctions, including commander of the royal armies and grand master of France when François II inherited the throne. Emblematic figure of the Catholic factions, he fought the Huguenots and died assassinated at the siege of Orléans, at the end of the first War of Religion. At the court of King Henri II, the Guise family was opposed to the Montmorency clan. Older brother to the cardinal de Lorraine, to the duc d’Aumale, and to the chevalier de Guise, he was also uncle to Marie Stuart, whose mother was Marie de Guise.
François de Lorraine, duc d’Aumale (1547-1550), hérite du titre de duc de Guise (1550-1563) à la mort de son père, selon le droit d’aînesse. Il est élevé à la cour, grandissant auprès du futur roi Henri II. François de Lorraine mène une brillante carrière militaire pendant les guerres d’Italie au point d’être considéré comme le plus grand homme de guerre de son époque. Il se distingue notamment au fameux siège de Metz (1552) au cours duquel il défait l’armée impériale de Charles Quint. La peinture du siège de Metz figure dans l’une des plus importantes scènes du roman entre le duc Nemours et la princesse de Clèves située dans la quatrième partie. En 1558, le duc de Guise reprend la ville de Calais occupée par les Anglais, mettant ainsi fin à deux siècles d’occupation anglaise. Ses exploits lui vaudront de nombreuses distinctions dont celles de commandant des armées royales et de grand maître de France à l’avènement de François II. Figure emblématique du parti catholique, il se bat contre les Huguenots et meurt assassiné au siège d’Orléans qui marque la fin de la première guerre de religion. À la cour d’Henri II, la famille de Guise s’oppose au clan des Montmorency. Frère aîné du cardinal de Lorraine, du duc d’Aumale et du chevalier de Guise et oncle de Marie Stuart (dont la mère est Marie de Guise).

Cardinal de Lorraine, Charles de Guise
(1524-1574)

Charles de Guise was the second son of the first duc de Guise. He embraced a religious career, holding a number of ecclesiastical positions before being named archbishop of Reims in 1538. He presided over Henri II’s coronation in 1547. He is better known under the title of cardinal de Lorraine, as he is referred to throughout the novel. Belonging to the powerful Guise family, he was the brother of the duc de Guise, the duc d’Aumale, and the chevalier de Guise, all of them historical characters who appear in the early pages of the novel.
Second fils du premier duc de Guise, Charles de Guise embrasse une carrière religieuse, occupant plusieurs fonctions avant d’être nommé archevêque de Reims en 1538. Il préside au sacre d’Henri II en 1547. Il est plus connu sous le nom du cardinal de Lorraine et est ainsi dénommé dans le roman. Appartenant à la puissante famille de Guise, il est le frère du duc de Guise, du duc d’Aumale et du chevalier de Guise, personnages historiques qui apparaissent dès les premières pages du roman.
Chevalier de Guise, François de Guise
(1534-1563)
François de Guise was the fifth son of the influential Guise family. In 1549, Henri II named him grand prior of France. A prior is a religious title of high rank. The duc de Guise, the cardinal de Lorraine, and the duc d’Aumale are his brothers. The chevalier de Guise represents a tragic male courtly figure in the novel. As one of the younger brothers of the Guise family, he could not aspire to marry mademoiselle de Chartres. Lafayette explains his departure from the court and his religious turn as stemming from his sadness for the unrequited love of the princesse de Clèves, especially as he becomes aware of her love for Nemours. The chevalier de Guise is the only member of the court to perceive the love between Nemours and the Princesse de Clèves.
François de Guise est le cinquième fils de l’influente famille de Guise. En 1549, Henri II le nomme grand prieur de France. Un prieur est un titre de dignité religieuse. Le duc de Guise, le cardinal de Lorraine et le duc d’Aumale sont ses frères. Le chevalier de Guise représente une figure tragique masculine dans le roman : étant l’un des fils cadets de la famille de Guise, il ne peut prétendre à une union avec la Princesse. Lafayette explique son départ de la cour et son tournant religieux à cause du dépit amoureux qu’il ressent face aux sentiments de la Princesse pour le duc Nemours. Le chevalier de Guise est le seul membre de la cour à percevoir l’amour entre Nemours et madame de Clèves.
Prince de Condé, Louis de Bourbon
(1530-1569)

Louis de Bourbon was the son of Charles IV de Bourbon, duc de Vendôme, and Françoise d’Alençon. He was the younger brother of the king of Navarre, Antoine de Bourbon, and the uncle of the future King of France, Henri IV. He was a prince of royal blood from the Bourbon family. The princes of royal blood belong to the highest rank and therefore garner the greatest respect at court, after the royal family. During his brilliant military career, he participated in the siege of Metz (1552) and in the famous battle of Saint-Quentin (1557). In 1559, the Guise family had him arrested in Orléans during the royal entry of King François II into that city, which was celebrating his accession to the throne. In the first War of Religion, the prince de Condé was one of the great leaders of the Huguenots who fought against the Guise family. In the third War of Religion, he was killed at the battle of Jarnac, a Catholic victory.
Louis de Bourbon, prince de Condé (1546-1569), est le fils de Charles IV de Bourbon, duc de Vendôme, et de Françoise d’Alençon, le frère cadet du roi de Navarre, Antoine de Bourbon, et oncle du futur roi Henri IV. C’est un prince de sang issu de la maison des Bourbon. Le prince de sang appartient au rang le plus élevé de la cour de France, après la famille royale. Au cours de sa brillante carrière militaire, il participe au siège de Metz (1552) et à la bataille de Saint-Quentin (1557). En 1559, les Guise le font arrêter à Orléans lors de l’entrée royale de François II dans cette ville à l’occasion de son joyeux avènement à la couronne. Au cours des premières guerres de religion, le prince de Condé est l’un des grands chefs huguenots qui s’oppose à la maison des Guise. Lors de la troisième guerre de religion, il est tué à la bataille de Jarnac, remportée par les catholiques.
Duc de Nevers, François Ier de Clèves
(1516-1562)

François I de Clèves, comte de Nevers, became duc de Nevers upon the death of his father in 1539. He was one of the great members of the court of King François I and then of Henri II’s court as well. He played a crucial military role in the Italian Wars. In 1538, he married Marguerite de Bourbon-Vendôme, with whom he had five children, including François II de Clèves, comte d’Eu, and Jacques de Clèves—known as the prince de Clèves and a leading character of Lafayette’s novel.
François Ier de Clèves, comte de Nevers à la mort de son père, est fait duc de Nevers en 1539. Il est l’un des grands personnages de la cour de François Ier, puis de celle d’Henri II, qui joue un rôle militaire important dans les guerres d’Italie. En 1538, il épouse Marguerite de Bourbon-Vendôme avec qui il a cinq enfants, dont François II de Clèves, comte d’Eu, et Jacques de Clèves—identifié sous le nom du prince de Clèves dans le roman.
Prince de Clèves, Jacques de Clèves
(1544-1564)
Jacques de Clèves is the youngest son of François I de Clèves, duc de Nevers and Marguerite de Bourbon, the sister of Antoine de Bourbon. Never referred to as Jacques de Clèves within the plot of the novel, this main character of La Princesse de Clèves is always identified as the prince de Clèves or monsieur de Clèves. Although he corresponds to a historical person, the character of the prince de Clèves underscores the blend of fact and fiction in the novel. For example, in 1558, Jacques de Clèves married the granddaughter of Diane de Poitiers, Diane de La Marck (and not the princesse de Clèves, an entirely fictitious character). In contrast to Lafayette’s plot, Jacques de Clèves died in 1564, two years after the death of his father and elder brother.
Jacques de Clèves est le fils cadet de François Ier de Clèves, duc de Nevers, et de Marguerite de Bourbon, sœur d’Antoine de Bourbon. Jamais appelé par le nom de Jacques de Clèves, ce personnage principal de La Princesse de Clèves est systématiquement identifié sous le nom du prince de Clèves ou de monsieur de Clèves. Correspondant à un personnage historique, le prince de Clèves dénote le mélange de la réalité et de la fiction dans le roman. Par exemple, en 1558, Jacques de Clèves épouse la petite-fille de Diane de Poitiers, Diane de La Marck (et non pas la princesse de Clèves, personnage entièrement inventé). Contrairement à l’intrigue du roman, Jacques de Clèves meurt en 1564, deux ans après la mort de son père et celle de son frère aîné.
Vidame de Chartres, François de Vendôme
(1522-1560)

François Vendôme, vicomte or vidame de Chartres, was an accomplished soldier and favored member of the court of Henri II. In 1557, he became colonel general in the Italian wars and the following year he became governor of Calais. The vidame de Chartres was close to Queen Catherine de Médicis and remained so until the start of François II’s reign, as described in the novel (at the end of part 2 and the beginning of part 3). Towards the end of the 1550s, he developed an antagonistic relationship with the Guise family. The aristocratic title “Vidame” is fairly uncommon in the French nobility and derives from the Latin term “vice-dominus” or “vice-lord.”
François de Vendôme, vicomte ou vidame de Chartres, est un soldat accompli et membre favori de la cour d’Henri II. En 1557, il devient colonel général des bandes du Piémont et, l’année suivante, gouverneur de Calais. Le vidame de Chartres est proche de la reine Catherine de Médicis, et ce jusqu’au début du règne de François II, comme le décrit Lafayette dans son roman (fin de la deuxième partie et début de la troisième partie). Vers la fin des années 1550, une relation antagoniste se développe entre le vidame de Chartres et la famille de Guise. Le titre aristocratique de « vidame » est assez rare dans la noblesse française et dérive du terme latin « vice-dominus » qui signifie « vice-seigneur ».
Duc de Nemours, Jacques de Savoie-Nemours
(1531-1585)

Jacques de Savoie-Nemours, duc de Nemours and Genevois, was the son of Philippe de Savoie-Nemours and Charlotte d’Orléans-Longueville. He distinguished himself in many military campaigns, including the siege of Metz (1552). The painting of the siege of Metz figures in the famous scene at Coulommiers (part 4) when Nemours secretly observes the princesse de Clèves gazing at the painting in which he appears. During his military career, the duc de Nemours became colonel general of the French infantry in Italy, headed by the duc de Guise, and then colonel general of the cavalry during other crucial military sieges. He was seriously considered as a spouse by Queen Elizabeth I of England in 1559. Instead, in 1566 he married Anne d’Este, the widow of François I of Lorraine, duc de Guise. The duc de Nemours played an important role during the Wars of Religion against the Huguenots, saving King Charles IX from the Protestants at Meaux in 1569. With the chronology of La Princesse de Clèves ending in 1559, the final years of the duc de Nemours’s life extend well beyond the limits of the novel.
Fils de Philippe de Savoie-Nemours et de Charlotte d’Orléans-Longueville, Jacques de Savoie-Nemours est duc de Nemours et de Genevois. Il s’illustre dans de nombreuses campagnes militaires, notamment celle de Metz (1552). La peinture du siège de Metz figure dans la fameuse scène du roman de la quatrième partie où Nemours observe secrètement la princesse de Clèves en train de regarder ce tableau dans lequel il est représenté. Au cours de sa carrière militaire, le duc de Nemours est nommé colonel général de l’infanterie française dans l’armée d’Italie menée par le duc de Guise, puis colonel général de la cavalerie légère lors d’importants sièges militaires. Prétendant sérieux d’Élisabeth d’Angleterre en 1559, il épouse en 1566 Anne d’Este, la veuve de François Ier de Lorraine, duc de Guise. Le duc de Nemours se distingue pendant les guerres de religion contre les Huguenots, sauvant Charles IX des protestants à Meaux en 1569. La Princesse de Clèves se terminant avec les épisodes historiques de 1559, les dernières années du duc de Nemours se passent en dehors de l’intrigue romanesque.

Connétable de Montmorency, Anne, duc de Montmorency
(1492-1567)

Anne, duc de Montmorency, bore the name of his godmother, Anne de Bretagne, wife of King Louis XII. He was raised at the court of François I. In 1526, he married Madeleine de Savoie, with whom he had twelve children, including Henri de Montmorency, the duc d’Anville. During his long career, he occupied many prestigious roles at the heart of the kingdom, becoming maréchal (1522), grand master (1525) and connétable (constable) of France (1538), the latter role making him the de facto head of the king’s armies. One of the most powerful noblemen of France, he distinguished himself in the bloody Battle of Novare (1513) and the famous Battle of Marignan (1515), the two defining battles of the Italian Wars. In 1542, Anne de Montmorency fell out of favor and lost his post as connétable; he regained his position upon Henri II’s succession. In 1557, he was a prisoner at the battle of Saint-Quentin (August 1557–October 1558) but was later freed during the peace negotiations of Cateau-Cambrésis, in which he took part. In 1567, he won the Battle of Saint-Denis, but was fatally wounded there. Lafayette’s novel describes the antagonistic relationship between the connétable de Montmorency, favored by Henri II, and the Guise clan, favored by Catherine de Médicis; this passage mentions the hatred that the queen felt towards Anne de Montmorency.
Anne, duc de Montmorency, porte le nom de sa marraine, Anne de Bretagne, épouse du roi Louis XII. Il est élevé à la cour de François Ier. En 1526, il épouse Madeleine de Savoie, avec qui il a douze enfants, dont Henri de Montmorency, duc d’Anville. Au cours de sa longue carrière, il remplit de prestigieuses fonctions au sein de l’État, devenant successivement maréchal (1522), grand maître (1525) et connétable de France (1538), ce dernier rôle faisant de lui le chef de facto des armées du roi. L’un des seigneurs les plus puissants de France, il se distingue notamment dans la sanglante bataille de Novare (1513) et la célèbre bataille de Marignan (1515), principales batailles des premières guerres d’Italie. En 1542, Anne de Montmorency subit la disgrâce, perdant sa charge de connétable ; il reprend toutes ses charges à l’avènement d’Henri II. En 1557, il est fait prisonnier à la bataille de Saint-Quentin (août 1557-octobre 1558) et délivré lors des négociations de la paix de Cateau-Cambrésis auxquelles il participe. En 1567, il gagne la bataille de Saint-Denis, au cours de laquelle il est mortellement blessé. Le roman décrit les rapports antagoniques entre le connétable de Montmorency, soutenu par Henri II, et le clan des Guise, soutenu par Catherine de Médicis ; ce passage mentionne la haine qu’entretient la reine à l’égard d’Anne de Montmorency.


Maréchal de Saint-André, Jacques d’Albon
(circa. 1505-1562)
The son of Jean d’Albon and Charlotte de la Roche, Jacques d’Albon was known as the seigneur or maréchal de Saint-André. He was named both maréchal of France and gentilhomme de la chambre du roi and made chevalier de l’ordre de Saint-Michel upon Henri II’s succession to the throne of France (1547). He took part in numerous major battles, including Saint-Quentin (1557). In 1559, he was sent to Cateau-Cambrésis to negotiate for peace with the Spanish kingdom. Upon the death of François II, he allied himself with the powerful family of Guise and Anne de Montmorency—the Catholic triumvirate—against the Huguenots.
Le fils de Jean d’Albon et de Charlotte de la Roche, Jacques d’Albon est connu sous l’appellation de seigneur ou maréchal de Saint-André. Il est nommé à la fois maréchal de France et gentilhomme de la chambre du roi et fait chevalier de l’ordre de Saint-Michel à l’avènement d’Henri II au trône de France (1547). Il se distingue dans de nombreuses batailles dont celle de Saint-Quentin (1557). En 1559, il est envoyé à Cateau-Cambrésis pour négocier la paix avec l’Espagne. À la mort de François II, il s’allie à la puissante famille de Guise et Anne de Montmorency—créant ainsi le triumvirat catholique—contre les Huguenots.
Duc d’Aumale, Claude de Guise
(1526-1573)

Claude de Guise, duc d’Aumale, was the third son of the first duc de Guise. He participated in numerous military expeditions. In 1547, he married Louise de Brézé, the daughter of Louis de Brézé and Diane de Poitiers. He was brother to the duc de Guise, to the cardinal de Lorraine, and to the chevalier de Guise, all three named in part 1 of the novel.
Claude de Guise, duc d’Aumale, est le troisième fils du premier duc de Guise. Il participe à de nombreuses expéditions militaires. En 1547, il épouse Louise de Brézé, la fille de Louis de Brézé et de Diane de Poitiers. Frère du duc de Guise, du cardinal de Lorraine et du chevalier de Guise, tous trois nommés dans la première partie du roman.
Madame Diane, Diane de France
(1538-1619)

Illegitimate daughter of King Henri II and a woman from the Piémont, Diane de France was legitimized in 1548. In her first marriage, she wed Horace Farnèse, who died five years after their wedding in 1553; in her second marriage, she wed François de Montmorency, the son of the famous connétable Anne de Montmorency. She held the title of duchesse d’Angoulême from 1582 until her death.
Fille illégitime du roi Henri II et d’une dame piémontaise, Diane de France est légitimée en 1548. En premières noces, elle épouse Horace Farnèse, qui meurt cinq mois après leur mariage en 1553 ; en secondes noces, elle épouse François de Montmorency, le fils du fameux connétable Anne de Montmorency. Elle est duchesse d’Angoulême de 1582 jusqu’à sa mort.

Monsieur de Montmorency, François de Montmorency
(1530-1579)

Eldest son of the connétable Anne de Montmorency and of Madeleine de Savoie. In 1557, he married Diane de France, legitimized daughter of Henri II. Two years later, when François II inherited the throne of France, he received the prestigious title of maréchal de France—the officer general who occupies the highest level of the military hierarchy.
Fils aîné du connétable Anne de Montmorency et de Madeleine de Savoie. En 1557, il épouse Diane de France, fille légitimée d’Henri II. Deux ans plus tard, le roi François II, à son avènement au trône de France, lui octroie le prestigieux titre de maréchal de France—officier général qui occupe le rang le plus élevé dans la hiérarchie militaire.
Monsieur d’Anville, Henri Ier de Montmorency
(1534-1614)

Second son of the connétable Anne de Montmorency and Madeleine de Savoie, Henri I de Montmorency was seigneur d’Anville and became duc de Montmorency in 1579 upon the death of his brother. In 1558, he wed Antoinette de La Marck, the granddaughter of Diane de Poitiers and the sister of Diane de La Marck. He held the position of governor of Languedoc (1563). At the start of the religious wars, he was close to the Catholic side; however, after the St. Bartholomew’s Day massacre, he became closer politically to the Protestants. In 1593, under the reign of Henri IV, he was granted the prestigious charge of connétable de France, following in the footsteps of his father, Anne de Montmorency.
Fils cadet du connétable Anne de Montmorency et de Madeleine de Savoie, Henri Ier de Montmorency est seigneur d’Anville et devient duc de Montmorency en 1579 à la mort de son frère. En 1558, il épouse en premières noces Antoinette de La Marck, la petite-fille de Diane de Poitiers et la sœur de Diane de La Marck. Au cours de sa carrière, il occupe notamment le poste de gouverneur du Languedoc (1563). Au début des guerres de religion, il est proche du camp catholique ; cependant, après le massacre de la Saint-Barthélemy, il se rapproche politiquement des protestants. En 1593, sous le règne d’Henri IV, il obtient la prestigieuse charge de connétable de France, suivant l’exemple de son père, Anne de Montmorency.
L’empereur, Charles Quint (Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor)
(1500-1558)

Charles V of the Habsburg dynasty was crowned emperor of the Holy Roman Empire in 1519. Charles Quint or Charles V (referred to as “l’Empereur” in the novel) was the most powerful European leader in the first half of the sixteenth century. He was an ardent defender of Christianity against Reformation efforts. A strong rivalry opposed Charles V to François I, and then to Henri II, as they incessantly vied in battle for territorial conquests. Charles V’s expressed preference for the third-born son of François I, Charles de France, duc d’Orléans, embittered Henri II, as this passage underscores.
Appartenant à la dynastie des Habsbourg et couronné empereur du Saint-empire romain germanique en 1519, Charles Quint (désigné par son titre d’empereur dans le roman) est le dirigeant le plus puissant d’Europe dans la première moitié du XVIe siècle. C’est un ardent défenseur de la chrétienté face à l’essor de la Réforme. Une forte rivalité oppose Charles Quint à François Ier, puis à Henri II, marquée par d’incessantes guerres de conquêtes territoriales. La préférence de Charles Quint pour le troisième fils de François Ier, Charles de France, duc d’Orléans, attise la rancœur d’Henri II, comme le souligne ce passage.


Duchesse douairière de Lorraine, Christine de Danemark
(1521-1590)

Christine of Denmark was the daughter of Christian II, King of Denmark, and of Isabelle of Austria, sister of the emperor Charles V. In a first marriage, she wed François II Sforza, duc de Milan, who died shortly thereafter. In a second union, she married François I, duc de Lorraine and Bar, with whom she had three children, including Charles III, duc de Lorraine, who is mentioned in the first part of the novel. From 1545 to 1552, Christine of Denmark was regent of the duchy of Lorraine.
Christine de Danemark est la fille de Christian II, roi de Danemark, et d’Isabelle d’Autriche, sœur de l’empereur Charles Quint. En premières noces, elle épouse François II Sforza, duc de Milan, qui meurt peu après leur mariage. Elle épouse en secondes noces François Ier, duc de Lorraine et de Bar, avec lequel elle a trois enfants, parmi lesquels Charles III, duc de Lorraine, et dont il est question dans la première partie du roman. De 1545 à 1552, Christine de Danemark est régente du duché de Lorraine.
Duc d’Albe, Fernando Alvare de Tolède
(1507-1582)

Of Castilian aristocracy, Fernand Alvare de Tolède, duc d’Albe, was a military leader who fervently battled on behalf of the King of Spain against Protestant forces. The duc d’Albe is sent by Philip II to represent him on the occasion of the wedding ceremony between the Spanish monarch and Élisabeth de France, daughter of King Henri II, as indicated in this passage and described towards the end of Part Three of the novel.
Issu de la noblesse castillane, Fernand Alvare de Tolède, duc d’Albe, est un chef de guerre qui combat au service du roi d’Espagne, menant une lutte acharnée contre le protestantisme. Le duc d’Albe est envoyé par Philippe II pour représenter ce dernier à l’occasion de son mariage avec Élisabeth de France, fille du roi Henri II, tel qu’indiqué dans ce passage et décrit vers la fin de la troisième partie du roman.
Prince d’Orange, Guillaume de Nassau
(1533-1584)

Guillaume de Nassau (or Guillaume the Taciturn), prince d’Orange, is considered to be one of the founding fathers of the Netherlands. He had the trust of Emperor Charles V and King Philip II of Spain. Because of the latter’s support, he became stadhouder (governor) of Holland, Zeeland, and Utrecht in 1559. Nonetheless, Guillaume d’Orange-Nassau later became one of the primary leaders in the Dutch revolt against Spain.
Guillaume de Nassau (ou Guillaume le Taciturne), prince d’Orange, est considéré comme l’un des fondateurs des Pays-Bas. Il a la confiance de l'empereur Charles Quint et de Philippe II d’Espagne. Grâce à ce dernier, il devient stadhouder (gouverneur) de Hollande, de Zélande et d’Utrecht en 1559. Cependant, dans les années qui suivent, Guillaume d’Orange-Nassau devient l’un des chefs de la révolte des Pays-Bas contre l’Espagne.
Philippe II (King of Spain)
(1527-1598)

Eldest son of Charles V and Isabel de Portugal, Philip II was crowned king of Spain following the abdication of his father in 1556 and inherited the majority of the territories of the House of Habsburg. In a third marriage, he married Élisabeth de France, daughter of Henri II and Catherine de Médicis, with this political union forming part of the peace negotiations between France and the Habsburg empire that culminated in the second treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis, ending the Italian Wars. An ardent defender of Catholicism, Philip II supported the French Catholic League and the Guise family during the French Wars of Religion. He was also responsible for sending the famous Spanish Armada on an ill-fated attack against England in 1588.
Fils aîné de Charles Quint et d’Isabelle de Portugal, Philippe II est couronné roi d’Espagne à la suite de l’abdication de son père en 1556 et hérite de la grande majorité des territoires de la maison des Habsbourg. Il épouse en troisième noces Élisabeth de France, fille d’Henri II et de Catherine de Médicis. Ce mariage politique fait partie des négociations de paix entre la France et l’empire des Habsbourg et se conclut avec la signature du second traité de Cateau-Cambrésis qui met fin aux guerres d’Italie. Ardent défenseur du catholicisme, Philippe II soutient la Ligue et la famille de Guise pendant les guerres de religion en France. Il est également responsable de l’envoi de la célèbre armada espagnole lors d'une attaque malheureuse contre l’Angleterre en 1588.

Don Carlos, Charles d’Autriche
(1545-1568)

Eldest son of Philip II, king of Spain, and Marie de Portugal, Don Carlos was of fragile health and struggled psychologically—perhaps as a result of his parents being first cousins. Élisabeth de France, daughter of King Henri II and Catherine of Médicis, was promised to him in marriage, as noted in part 1 of the novel, paragraph 8. Nonetheless, as a result of the death of Mary of England, she was instead given to his father, Philip II, as described in this passage. A historical novel by the Abbé Saint-Réal, entitled Dom Carlos and published in 1672, describes the forbidden love between the Spanish heir to the throne and the French princess. The story was later made into an opera by Giuseppi Verdi. Lafayette’s readers would likely have read this famous work and have it in mind as they encountered those historical characters in Lafayette’s novel.
Fils aîné de Philippe II, roi d’Espagne, et de Marie de Portugal, Don Carlos est de nature fragile et souffre de troubles mentaux—en partie dû à un problème de consanguinité, ses parents étant cousins germains. Élisabeth de France, fille d’Henri II et de Catherine de Médicis, est promise en mariage à l’infant d’Espagne, Don Carlos, comme il en est question dans la première partie du roman. Cependant, à la suite de la mort de Marie Ire d’Angleterre, Philippe II, devenu veuf, décide d’épouser Élisabeth de France à la place de son fils, tel que mentionné dans ce passage. Une nouvelle historique de Saint-Réal, intitulée Dom Carlos et parue en 1672, témoigne de cette histoire d’amour interdite entre le dauphin d’Espagne et la princesse française. L’histoire inspirera un opéra de Giuseppe Verdi. Les lecteurs de Lafayette avaient lu cette célèbre nouvelle et l’avaient certainement en tête.
Monsieur de Savoie, Emmanuel-Philibert de Savoie
(1528-1580)

Heir to the dynasty of the house of Savoie, Emmanuel-Philibert became duc de Savoie and prince of Piémont in 1553. When the novel takes place, the States of Savoie had been occupied by France for more than twenty-five years. In 1559, the marriage of Emmanuel-Philibert de Savoie with King Henri II’s sister, Marguerite de France, was decided with the signature of the treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis, which put an end to the Italian Wars, confirming the peace between the Kingdom of France and the Habsburg Empire. The second treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis also stipulated the restitution of territories of the States of Savoie and Piémont to the duc de Savoie.
Héritier de la dynastie de la maison de Savoie, Emmanuel-Philibert devient duc de Savoie et prince de Piémont en 1553. Au moment où se déroule l’histoire du roman, les États de Savoie sont occupés par la France depuis plus de vingt ans. En 1559, le mariage d’Emmanuel-Philibert de Savoie avec la sœur du roi Henri II, Marguerite de France, est conclu avec la signature des traités de Cateau-Cambrésis qui mettent fin aux guerres d’Italie, signant la paix entre le royaume de France et l’empire des Habsbourg. Le second traité de Cateau-Cambrésis contient notamment la restitution des territoires des États de Savoie et de Piémont au duc de Savoie.
La reine Marie, Marie Ire d’Angleterre (Mary I, Queen of England)
(1516-1558)

Queen of England from 1553 to 1558, Mary I was also known as Mary Tudor. She was the daughter of King Henry VIII and Catherine d’Aragon. In 1547, Henry VIII died and was succeeded by Mary’s half-brother, Edward VI, the son Henry had with Jane Seymour. Edward VI died young, in 1553; he was briefly followed by his cousin, Jane Grey, before Mary was crowned the same year. In 1554, she married King Philippe II of Spain. During her reign, Mary I adopted a brutal policy of persecution against English Protestants, gaining her the nickname “Bloody Mary.”
Marie Ire d’Angleterre (1553-1558), aussi connue sous le nom de Marie Tudor, est la fille du roi Henri VIII et de Catherine d’Aragon. En 1547, le roi Henri VIII meurt et est succédé par Édouard VI, le fils qu’il a eu avec Jeanne Seymour. Demi-frère cadet de Marie, Édouard VI meurt avant d’atteindre sa majorité en 1553 ; il est succédé très brièvement par sa cousine, Jeanne Grey, avant que Marie Ire ne monte sur le trône la même année. En 1554, elle épouse en premières noces Philippe II d’Espagne, qui a déjà un fils avec sa première femme (Don Carlos) et qui épousera plus tard Élisabeth de France. Durant son règne, Marie Ire mène une politique de persécutions contre les protestants anglais, d’où son surnom « Bloody Mary ».
La reine Élisabeth (Elizabeth I, Queen of England)
(1533-1603)

Queen of England from 1558 to 1603, Elizabeth I was the daughter of King Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn (referred to as “Anne de Boulen” in La Princesse de Clèves). Boleyn was executed in 1536; see her interpolated story in part 2. Elizabeth, half-sister to Mary and Edward VI, was crowned in January 1559 and reigned for forty-four years. She was of Protestant faith but relatively tolerant, especially in contrast to Mary I. Although she had many suitors (including the duc de Nemours) she never married.
Élisabeth Ire d’Angleterre (1558-1603) est la fille du roi Henri VIII et d’Anne Boleyn (Anne de Boulen dans La Princesse de Clèves), laquelle est exécutée en 1536 (voir le récit de ce personnage dans la deuxième partie). Élisabeth, la demi-sœur de Marie Ire et d’Édouard VI, est couronnée en janvier 1559 et règne pendant quarante-quatre ans. Elle est protestante mais relativement tolérante, contrairement à Marie Ire. Bien qu’elle ait eu plusieurs prétendants (dont le prince de Nemours), elle ne se mariera jamais.


Comte d’Eu, François II de Clèves
(1540-1562)
François II de Clèves was the eldest son of François de Clèves, duc de Nevers, and Marguerite de Vendôme. An important member of King François I’s court and then of Henri II’s, he was commander of the royal armies. He distinguished himself during the last Italian Wars. François II de Clèves was the prince de Clèves’s brother. In La Princesse de Clèves, he is mentioned once at the start of the novel under the name Comte d’Eu, which was one of his titles of nobility, and a second time, when he is referred to as the duc de Nevers, after the death of his father.
François II de Clèves est le fils aîné de François Ier de Clèves, duc de Nevers, et de Marguerite de Vendôme. Personnage important de la cour de François Ier, puis de celle d’Henri II. Commandant de l’armée royale, il se démarque notamment pendant les dernières guerres d’Italie. François II de Clèves est le frère du prince de Clèves. Dans La Princesse de Clèves, il est mentionné une première fois au tout début du roman sous le nom du comte d’Eu, l’un de ses titres de noblesse, et une seconde fois sous le nom du duc de Nevers, après la mort de son père.
Reine de Navarre, Jeanne d’Albret
(1528-1572)

Daughter of Henri II de Navarre and Marguerite d’Angoulême, who was François I’s sister. In 1541, she married Guillaume de Clèves, from whom she separated in 1545. In 1548, she married her second spouse, Antoine de Bourbon, duc de Vendôme, with whom she had five children, including the future king of France, Henri IV. In 1555, after the death of her father, she became the Queen of Navarre. In 1560, she converted to Protestantism. Eight years later she was at the head of the Protestant side, the Huguenots.
Fille du roi Henri II de Navarre et de Marguerite d’Angoulême, sœur du roi François Ier. En 1541, Jeanne d’Albret épouse Guillaume de Clèves dont elle se sépare en 1545. En 1548, elle épouse en secondes noces Antoine de Bourbon, duc de Vendôme, avec qui elle a cinq enfants, dont le futur roi Henri IV. En 1555, après la mort de son père, elle devient reine de Navarre. En 1560, elle se convertit au protestantisme. Huit ans plus tard, elle est à la tête du parti protestant, les Huguenots.

Prince dauphin, François de Bourbon
(1542-1592)

Son of the duc de Montpensier and of Jacqueline de Longwy, François de Bourbon was also known as the prince de Montpensier or the prince dauphin. In 1566, he married Renée d’Anjou, marquise de Mézières and comtesse de Saint-Fargeau, considered to be the inspiration for the heroine of La Princesse de Montpensier (1662), a novella written by Lafayette.
Fils du duc de Montpensier et de Jacqueline de Longwy, François de Bourbon est aussi connu sous le nom du prince de Montpensier ou prince dauphin. En 1566, il épouse Renée d’Anjou, marquise de Mézières et comtesse de Saint-Fargeau, considérée comme une source d’inspiration de l’héroïne de La Princesse de Montpensier (1662) de Lafayette.
Duc de Montpensier, Louis III de Bourbon-Vendôme
(1513-1582)
Son of Louis de Bourbon, the prince de La Roche-sur-Yon, and of Louise de Bourbon, duchesse de Montpensier, Louis III de Bourbon-Vendôme was a prince of royal blood, at the highest ranks of the court of France, second only to the royal family. In 1538, the duc de Montpensier married his first wife, Jacqueline de Longwy, with whom he had four daughters and a son, the prince dauphin. In 1570, the duc de Montpensier married his second wife, Catherine de Lorraine.
Fils de Louis de Bourbon, prince de La Roche-sur-Yon, et de Louise de Bourbon, duchesse de Montpensier, Louis III de Bourbon-Vendôme est un prince de sang. Un prince de sang appartient au rang le plus élevé de la cour de France, après la famille royale. En 1538, le duc de Montpensier épouse en premières noces Jacqueline de Longwy avec qui il a quatre filles et un fils, le prince dauphin. En 1570, le duc de Montpensier épouse en secondes noces Catherine de Lorraine.
Marie de Guise
(1515-1560)

Member of the influential Guise family, Marie de Guise, also known as Marie de Lorraine, married Jacques V, James V, king of Scotland, in 1538. Mother of Marie Stuart, of the duc de Guise, and of the cardinal de Lorraine, Marie de Guise became regent of the Kingdom of Scotland in 1554. During her regency, she upheld French Catholic interests and, starting in 1558, she undertook a policy of religious persecution that provoked a Protestant rebellion in May of 1559. As the character of Marie Stuart explains it in Lafayette’s novel, Henry VIII of England was interested in Marie de Guise before she married Jacques V. Marie de Guise died in 1560, a few months before the death of the French king François II, her daughter’s husband.
Issue de l’influente famille de Guise, Marie de Guise (connue aussi sous le nom de Marie de Lorraine) épouse Jacques V, roi d’Écosse, en 1538. Mère de Marie Stuart ainsi que sœur du duc de Guise et du cardinal de Lorraine, Marie de Guise devient régente du royaume d’Écosse en 1554. Pendant sa régence, elle soutient les intérêts des catholiques français et, à partir de 1558, elle mène une politique de persécution religieuse qui provoque une rébellion protestante en mai 1559. Comme le personnage de Marie Stuart le précise dans le roman, Henri VIII d’Angleterre s’intéresse à Marie de Guise avant que celle-ci n’épouse Jacques V. Marie de Guise meurt en 1560, quelques mois avant la mort du roi de France François II, le mari de sa fille.
Jacques V d’Écosse (James V, King of Scotland)
(1512-1542)

Son of James IV of Scotland and Marguerite Tudor, James V d’Écosse (1513-42) was less than two years old when he inherited the crown after his father died at the battle of Flodden Field. Until around 1528, a series of regents ruled in his name. During his personal reign, James V adopted a politically favorable policy towards France, often antagonizing England. In 1537, he wed Madeleine, daughter of François I and Claude de France; she died the same year. The following year, James V married Marie de Guise, daughter of Claude de Lorraine and Antoinette de Bourbon. They had three children, of whom only Marie Stuart reached adult age. James V died a few days after the Battle of Solway Moss and the birth of his daughter, Marie Stuart, the dauphine in the novel.
Fils de Jacques IV d’Écosse et de Marguerite Tudor, Jacques V d’Écosse (1513-1542) a moins de deux ans lorsqu’il hérite de la couronne de son père, qui meurt à la bataille de Flodden Field. Jusqu’à environ 1528, une série de régent(e)s règnent à sa place. Pendant son règne personnel, Jacques V conduit une politique favorable à la France et parfois antagoniste à l’Angleterre. En 1537, il épouse en premières noces Madeleine, fille de François Ier et de Claude de France ; elle meurt la même année. L’année suivante, Jacques V épouse Marie de Guise, fille de Claude de Lorraine et d’Antoinette de Bourbon. Ils ont trois enfants, dont seule Marie Stuart atteint l’âge adulte. Jacques V meurt quelques jours après la bataille de Solway Moss et la naissance de sa fille Marie Stuart, la dauphine dans ce roman.

Madame Madeleine, Madeleine de France
(1520-1537)
Sister to King Henri II, Madeleine de France is François I and Claude de France’s daughter. She married James V of Scotland in January 1537, making her the queen of Scotland. Of fragile health, she died six years later in Scotland.
La sœur du roi Henri II, Madeleine de France est la fille du roi François Ier et de Claude de France. Elle épouse Jacques V d’Écosse en janvier 1537, devenant ainsi reine d’Écosse. D’une santé fragile, elle meurt six mois plus tard, en Écosse.
Le roi d’Angleterre, Henri VIII (Henry VIII, King of England)
(1491-1547)

Henry VIII was king of England from 1509 to 1547. He was the son of Henry VII and Elizabeth of York. Over the course of his life, he married six women: Catherine of Aragon, Anne Boleyn (referred to as Anne de Boulen in La Princesse de Clèves), Jeanne Seymour (referred to as Jeanne Seimer), Anne de Clèves, Catherine Howard (referred to as Catherine Havard), and Catherine Parr. In desperate need of a male heir, when the pope refused to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon, Henry VIII founded the Anglican Church in which the monarch of England is the head of the church. His surviving children were Mary I of England, Elizabeth I, and Edward VI.
Henri VIII, roi d’Angleterre (1509-1547), est le fils d’Henri VII et d’Élisabeth d’York. Au cours de sa vie, il épouse six femmes : Catherine d’Aragon, Anne Boleyn (Anne de Boulen dans La Princesse de Clèves), Jeanne Seymour (dite Jeanne Seimer), Anne de Clèves, Catherine Howard (dite Catherine Havard) et Catherine Parr. Ayant désespérément besoin d’un héritier mâle, quand le pape refuse d’annuler son mariage avec Catherine d’Aragon, Henri VIII crée l’Église d’Angleterre au sein de laquelle le monarque d’Angleterre est aussi chef de l’Église. Ses enfants qui lui survivent sont Marie Ire d’Angleterre, Élisabeth Ire et Édouard VI.

Duc de Lorraine, Charles III
(1543-1608)

Son of François I, duc de Lorraine, and Christine of Denmark, Charles III, duc de Lorraine and Bar, married Claude de France, the youngest daughter of Henri II and Catherine de Médicis, in January of 1559. Their wedding is referred to in this passage of part 1.
Fils de François Ier duc de Lorraine, et de Christine de Danemark, Charles III, duc de Lorraine et de Bar, épouse Claude de France, la fille cadette d’Henri II et de Catherine de Médicis, en janvier 1559. Il est question de ce mariage dans la première partie.
Claude de France
(1547-1575)

Claude de France is the second daughter of King Henri II and Catherine de Médicis. She bears the name of her grandmother, who had passed away before her birth. In January 1559, before her father’s death, when she was only eleven years old, she married Charles III, duc of Lorraine and Bar, thus becoming the duchesse of Lorraine. Their marriage is mentioned in this passage of part 1.
Claude de France est la fille cadette d’Henri II et de Catherine de Médicis. Elle porte le prénom de sa grand-mère, morte avant sa naissance. En janvier 1559, tout juste avant la mort de son père et alors qu’elle n’a que onze ans, elle épouse Charles III, duc de Lorraine et de Bar, devenant ainsi duchesse de Lorraine. Il est question de ce mariage dans la première partie.
Saint-Vallier, Jean de Poitiers
(1475-1539)
Jean de Poitiers, seigneur de Saint-Vallier. Father of Diane de Poitiers, duchesse de Valentinois, he was accused of being an accomplice in the treason of the connétable de Bourbon (Charles III de Bourbon) against the King of France.
Jean de Poitiers, seigneur de Saint-Vallier. Père de Diane de Poitiers, duchesse de Valentinois, il a été accusé de complicité dans l’acte de trahison du connétable de Bourbon (Charles III de Bourbon) envers le roi de France.
Mademoiselle de Pisseleu, Anne de Pisseleu
(1508-1580)

Anne de Pisseleu, known also as the duchesse d’Étampes—a title that she acquired by marrying Jean IV de Brosse de Boussac, duc d’Étampes—was a favorite of King François I.
Anne de Pisseleu, connue aussi sous le nom de la duchesse d’Étampes—titre qu’elle acquiert en épousant Jean IV de Brosse de Boussac, duc d’Étampes—est la favorite du roi François Ier.
Monsieur de Brézé, Louis de Brézé
(1463-1531)

Louis de Brézé was the grandson of the king of France Charles VII (1522-61) and his mistress Agnès Sorel. Grand sénéchal of Normandy (1494-1499), Louis de Brézé married Diane de Poitiers, the duchesse de Valentinois, in a second union in 1515. They had two daughters together: Françoise de Brézé, the mother of Mademoiselle de La Marck, and Louise de Brézé, who married Claude de Guise, duc d’Aumale.
Louis de Brézé est le petit-fils du roi de France Charles VII (1522-1561) de France et de sa maîtresse Agnès Sorel. Grand sénéchal de Normandie (1494-1499), Louis de Brézé épouse Diane de Poitiers, la duchesse de Valentinois, en secondes noces en 1515. Ils ont deux filles : Françoise de Brézé, qui est la mère de Mademoiselle de La Marck, et Louise de Brézé, qui épouse Claude de Guise, duc d’Aumale.
Duc d’Orléans, Charles de France
(1522-1545)
Charles de France was the third son of French king François I and Claude de France. In 1536, when his older brother François died prematurely, he became duc d’Orléans, a title borne by his brother Henri until he became dauphin (first heir to the throne). Since François I preferred Charles to Henri, a strong rivalry opposed the two brothers, such as Lafayette describes in this passage.
Charles de France est le troisième fils de François Ier et de Claude de France. En 1536, lorsque son frère aîné François de Valois meurt prématurément, il devient duc d’Orléans, titre porté par son frère Henri jusqu’à ce que ce dernier devienne le dauphin. Comme François Ier donne la préférence à Charles sur le dauphin, une forte rivalité oppose les deux frères, tel que Lafayette le décrit dans ce passage.
Cardinal de Tournon, François de Tournon
(1489-1562)

Ecclesiastical and political figure, François de Tournon was an important member of the court of François I and then of Henri II. Over the course of his long career, he occupied a number of essential ecclesiastical and diplomatic roles in Europe, including within Franco-Italian relations. Among others, he negotiated the marriage between Catherine de Médicis and Henri II. He became the king’s ambassador.
Homme d'État et homme d’église, François de Tournon est un personnage important de la cour de François Ier et de celle d’Henri II. Au cours de sa longue carrière, il remplit plusieurs charges ecclésiastiques et joue un rôle diplomatique essentiel sur l’échiquier politique européen, notamment dans les relations franco-italiennes. Entre autres, c’est lui qui négocie le mariage entre Catherine de Médicis et Henri II et qui devient ambassadeur du roi.
Amiral d’Annebault, Claude d’Annebault
(1495-1552)
Claude d’Annebault distinguished himself throughout his career in a variety of military expeditions and accumulated high-ranking administrative roles: gentilhomme ordinaire de la chambre du roi (1530), maréchal de France (1538), amiral de France (1543), and connétable de France upon the duc de Montmorency’s loss of favor (1540-48). At the death of François I, his role in affairs of the state was diminished because the duc de Montmorency was recalled from exile in Chantilly and regained the charge of connétable de France (1548). Claude d’Annebault momentarily lost his position of maréchal de France but regained it and became advisor to Catherine de Médicis.
Claude d’Annebault se signale tout au long de sa carrière dans diverses expéditions militaires et accumule les charges administratives : gentilhomme ordinaire de la chambre du roi (dès 1530), maréchal de France (1538), amiral de France (1543), connétable de France lors de la disgrâce du duc de Montmorency (1540-1548). À la mort de François Ier, son rôle dans les affaires de l’État est diminué, puisque le duc de Montmorency est rappelé de son exil à Chantilly et reprend sa charge de connétable de France (1548). Claude d’Annebault perd momentanément son poste de maréchal de France, mais l’obtient de nouveau et devient conseiller de Catherine de Médicis.
François Olivier
(1487-1560)

François Olivier was named Garde des Sceaux (Keeper of the Seals) and Chancelier de France in 1545 during the reign of King François I. One of the most important officers of the Crown, the chancelier de France is the head of the administration of justice in the kingdom. François Olivier was the only minister of François I that Henri II kept when he inherited the throne, but he lessened his power by taking away his position as Keeper of the Seals.
François Olivier est nommé garde des sceaux et chancelier de France en 1545 sous le règne de François Ier. Un des officiers les plus importants de la couronne, le chancelier de France désigne le chef de l’administration de la justice du royaume. François Olivier est le seul ministre de François Ier qu’Henri II conserve lorsqu’il devient roi, mais il affaiblit son pouvoir en lui retirant la charge de garde des sceaux.
Duc de Ferrare, Alphonse II d’Este
(1533-1597)

Alphonse II d’Este, duc de Ferrare from 1559-97, was the eldest son of Hercules II of Este and Renée de France, daughter of King Louis XII and Anne de Bretagne; he was also the brother of Anne d’Este, wife of the duc de Guise, and later of the duc de Nemours. He lived at the court of King Henri II from 1551 to 1559. In 1558, he married Lucrèce de Médicis, who died in 1561. He married two other women over the course of his life, Barbara d’Autriche, from 1561 until her death in 1572, and Marguerite de Mantoue from 1579 to 1597. The famous poem My Last Duchess (1842) by Robert Browning was supposedly based on a conversation between Alphonse II d’Este and a representative of Barbara d’Autriche, after the death of Lucrèce de Médicis.
Alphonse II d’Este, duc de Ferrare (1559-1597), est le fils aîné d’Hercule II d’Este et de Renée de France, fille de Louis XII et d’Anne de Bretagne ; il est aussi frère d’Anne d’Este, l’épouse du duc de Guise, puis du duc de Nemours. Il habite à la cour du roi Henri II de 1551 à 1559. En 1558, il épouse en premières noces Lucrèce de Médicis, qui meurt en 1561. Il épouse deux autres femmes au cours de sa vie : Barbara d’Autriche (de 1561 jusqu’à sa mort en 1572) et Marguerite de Mantoue (de 1579 à 1597). Le célèbre poème My Last Duchess (1842) de Robert Browning semble être tiré d’une conversation entre Alphonse II d’Este et un représentant de Barbara d’Autriche, après la mort de Lucrèce de Médicis.

Anne de Boulen (Anne Boleyn)
(1501-1536)
Raised in France, Anne Boleyn (referred to as Anne de Boulen in La Princesse of Clèves) was the maid of honor of Queen Claude of France. In 1533, she married Henry VIII, thus becoming queen of England. She gave birth to Elizabeth I of England the same year. Accused of treason against the king, she was executed in 1536. The story of this character is told in part 2 of the novel.
Élevée en France, Anne Boleyn (Anne de Boulen dans La Princesse de Clèves) est la dame d’honneur de la reine Claude de France. En 1533, elle épouse Henri VIII, devenant ainsi reine d’Angleterre. Elle donne naissance à Élisabeth Ire d’Angleterre la même année. Accusée de trahison envers le roi, elle est exécutée en 1536. Le récit de ce personnage est raconté dans la deuxième partie du roman.
Marguerite de Navarre
(1492-1549)

The daughter of Charles de Valois-Orléans, comte d’Angoulême, and of Louise de Savoie, Marguerite de Navarre can be referred to as Marguerite d’Angoulême, Marguerite d’Alençon, or Marguerite de Navarre. She is the sister of François I. Her first marriage was with Charles, duc d’Alençon. After his death, she married King Henri II de Navarre. Marguerite de Navarre was a poet and author; one of her most notable works was the Heptameron, which was modeled after Boccaccio’s Decameron and was probably a source of inspiration for La Princesse de Clèves.
Fille de Charles de Valois-Orléans, comte d’Angoulême, et de Louise de Savoie, elle est appelée soit Marguerite d’Angoulême, Marguerite d’Alençon ou Marguerite de Navarre. Elle est la sœur du roi François Ier. Marguerite de Navarre épouse Charles duc d’Alençon en premières noces, puis le roi Henri II de Navarre en secondes noces. Elle est l’auteure de l’Heptaméron, une œuvre qui prend modèle sur le Décaméron de Boccace, probablement une source d’inspiration de La Princesse de Clèves.

La reine Claude, Claude de France
(1499-1524)

Claude de France was the daughter of King Louis XII and duchesse Anne de Bretagne. Because her mother wanted Bretagne to be independent from France, Claude became engaged to Charles of Austria, the future emperor Charles V. However, ultimately King Louis XII arranged Claude’s marriage to the heir to the French throne, the future king François I. Claude de France became queen of France (1515-24) and duchess of Bretagne. She was the mother of seven children, including Henri II and his sister Marguerite de France, both involved in the novel’s plot.
Claude de France est la fille du roi Louis XII et de la duchesse Anne de Bretagne. Parce que sa mère veut que la Bretagne soit indépendante de la France, Claude est fiancée à Charles d’Autriche, le futur empereur Charles Quint. Cependant, le roi Louis XII arrange le mariage de sa fille avec le futur François Ier, héritier du trône de France. Claude de France devient reine de France (1515-1524) et duchesse de Bretagne. Mère de sept enfants, dont Henri II et sa sœur Marguerite de France dont il est question dans le roman.
Madame de Martigues
(1535-1613)
Marie de Beaucaire was the daughter of Jean de Beaucaire, lord of Puy-Guillon and sénéchal of Poitou, and of Guyonne de Breuil. Around 1556, she married Sébastien de Luxembourg, duc de Penthièvre and comte de Martigues, and became the princess of Martigues. Madame de Martigues was one of Marie Stuart’s ladies-in-waiting. In the novel, she is in love with the vidame de Chartres and is a friend of the princesse de Clèves while the latter is at Coulommiers.
Marie de Beaucaire est la fille de Jean de Beaucaire, seigneur de Puy-Guillon et sénéchal de Poitou, et de Guyonne du Breuil. Vers 1556, elle épouse Sébastien de Luxembourg, duc de Penthièvre et comte de Martigues, et devient princesse de Martigues. Madame de Martigues est dame d’honneur de Marie Stuart, dauphine de France. Dans le roman, elle a une inclination pour le vidame de Chartres et joue le rôle d’une amie de la princesse de Clèves pendant que cette dernière est à Coulommiers.
Comte de Montgomery
(1530-1574)

Gabriel de Lorges, Count of Montgomery, was captain of the Scots Guard of King Henri II. As in La Princesse de Clèves, he took part in a tournament during which he accidentally killed King Henri II by piercing his eye with a lance. During the Wars of Religion, the comte de Montgomery was allied with the Protestants and was executed in Paris in 1574.
Gabriel de Lorges, comte de Montgomery, est capitaine des gardes écossaises du roi Henri II. Tel que décrit dans La Princesse de Clèves, il fait partie d’un tournoi au cours duquel il tue par accident le roi Henri II d’un coup de lance. Pendant les guerres de religion, le comte de Montgomery est allié aux protestants et est exécuté à Paris en 1574.